Glossary
- Absolute zero
-
temperature at which the volume of a gas would be zero according to Charles’s law.
- Accuracy
-
How closely a measurement aligns with a correct value
- Acid
-
substance that produces H3O+ when dissolved in water
- acid dissociation constant, (Ka)
-
is an equilibrium constant that gives numerical representation of an acid’s strength in a solution based its degree of dissociation in water. The greater the Ka, the stronger the acid.
- Acid-base reaction
-
reaction involving the transfer of a hydrogen ion between reactant species
- acid-ionization constant, Ka
-
equilibrium constant for the ionization of a weak acid
- acidic
-
describes a solution in which [H3O+] > [OH−]
- Actinide
-
Inner transition metal in the bottom of the bottom two rows of the periodic table
- active electrode
-
electrode that participates in the oxidation-reduction reaction of an electrochemical cell; the mass of an active electrode changes during the oxidation-reduction reaction
- activity series
-
A list of elements that will replace elements below them in single-replacement reactions.
- Actual yield
-
amount of product formed in a reaction
- Adhesive force
-
force of attraction between molecules of different chemical identities
- Alkali metal
-
element in group 1
- Alkaline batteries
-
primary battery that uses an alkaline (often potassium hydroxide) electrolyte; designed to be an exact replacement for the dry cell, but with more energy storage and less electrolyte leakage than typical dry cell
- Alkaline earth metal
-
element in group 2
- Alloy
-
solid mixture of a metallic element and one or more additional elements
- Alpha particle (α particle)
-
positively charged particle consisting of two protons and two neutrons
- Amontons’s law
-
(also, Gay-Lussac’s law) pressure of a given number of moles of gas is directly proportional to its kelvin temperature when the volume is held constant
- Amphiphilic
-
molecules possessing both hydrophobic (nonpolar) and a hydrophilic (polar) parts
- amphiprotic
-
Able to both donate and accept a proton, and thus able to react both as an acid and a base
- amphoteric
-
species that can act as either an acid or a base
- Amplitude
-
extent of the displacement caused by a wave (for sinusoidal waves, it is one-half the difference from the peak height to the trough depth, and the intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude)
- Analyte
-
chemical species of interest; in a titration experiment, it is the solution of unknown solution for which you would like to determine either the concentration of the equilibrium constant.
- angular momentum quantum number
-
quantum number distinguishing the different shapes of orbitals; it is also a measure of the orbital angular momentum
- Anion
-
negatively charged atom or molecule (contains more electrons than protons)
- anode
-
electrode in an electrochemical cell at which oxidation occurs; information about the anode is recorded on the left side of the salt bridge in cell notation
- Aqueous solution
-
solution for which water is the solvent
- Arrhenius acid
-
An acid as a compound that dissolves in water to produce H+ ions (hydronium ions, H3O+)
- Arrhenius base
-
a compound that dissolves in water to to yield hydroxide ions (OH−)
- Atmosphere
-
unit of pressure; 1 atm = 101,325 Pa
- atom
-
smallest particle of an element that can enter into a chemical combination
- Atomic mass
-
average mass of atoms of an element, expressed in amu
- Atomic mass unit (amu)
-
(also, unified atomic mass unit, u, or Dalton, Da) unit of mass equal to 1/12 the mass of a 12C atom
- Atomic number (Z)
-
number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
- atomic orbital
-
mathematical function that describes the behavior of an electron in an atom (also called the wavefunction), it can be used to find the probability of locating an electron in a specific region around the nucleus, as well as other dynamical variables
- Aufbau principle
-
procedure in which the electron configuration of the elements is determined by “building” them in order of atomic numbers, adding one proton to the nucleus and one electron to the proper subshell at a time
- autoionization
-
reaction between identical species yielding ionic products; for water, this reaction involves transfer of protons to yield hydronium and hydroxide ions
- average rate
-
rate of a chemical reaction computed as the ratio of a measured change in amount or concentration of substance to the time interval over which the change occurred
- Avogadro’s law
-
volume of a gas at constant temperature and pressure is proportional to the number of gas molecules
- Avogadro's number (NA)
-
experimentally determined value of the number of entities comprising 1 mole of substance, equal to 6.022 × 1023 mol−1
- Axial position
-
location in a trigonal bipyramidal geometry in which there is another atom at a 180° angle and the equatorial positions are at a 90° angle
- Balanced equation
-
chemical equation with equal numbers of atoms for each element in the reactant and product
- Bar
-
(bar or b) unit of pressure; 1 bar = 100,000 Pa
- Barometer
-
device used to measure atmospheric pressure
- Base
-
substance that produces OH− when dissolved in water
- base dissociation constant, (Kb)
-
is an equilibrium constant that measures how completely a base dissociates into ions in water. The greater the Kb, the stronger the base.
- base-ionization constant (Kb)
-
equilibrium constant for the ionization of a weak base
- basic
-
describes a solution in which [H3O+] < [OH−]
- battery
-
galvanic cell or series of cells that produces a current; in theory, any galvanic cell
- Binary acid
-
compound that contains hydrogen and one other element, bonded in a way that imparts acidic properties to the compound (ability to release H+ ions when dissolved in water)
- Binary compound
-
compound containing two different elements.
- Blackbody
-
idealized perfect absorber of all incident electromagnetic radiation; such bodies emit electromagnetic radiation in characteristic continuous spectra called blackbody radiation
- Bohr’s model
-
structural model in which an electron moves around the nucleus only in circular orbits, each with a specific allowed radius; the orbiting electron does not normally emit electromagnetic radiation, but does so when changing from one orbit to another.
- Boiling point
-
temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the pressure of the gas above it
- Boiling point elevation
-
elevation of the boiling point of a liquid by addition of a solute
- Boiling point elevation constant
-
the proportionality constant in the equation relating boiling point elevation to solute molality; also known as the ebullioscopic constant
- bomb calorimeter
-
device designed to measure the energy change for processes occurring under conditions of constant volume; commonly used for reactions involving solid and gaseous reactants or products
- Bond angle
-
angle between any two covalent bonds that share a common atom
- Bond dipole moment
-
separation of charge in a bond that depends on the difference in electronegativity and the bond distance represented by partial charges or a vector
- Bond distance
-
(also, bond length) distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms
- Bond energy
-
(also, bond dissociation energy) energy required to break a covalent bond in a gaseous substance
- Bond length
-
distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms at which the lowest potential energy is achieved
- Born-Haber cycle
-
thermochemical cycle relating the various energetic steps involved in the formation of an ionic solid from the relevant elements
- Boyle’s law
-
volume of a given number of moles of gas held at constant temperature is inversely proportional to the pressure under which it is measured
- Brønsted-Lowry acid
-
A compound that donates a proton to another compound
- Brønsted-Lowry base
-
a compound that accepts a proton
- Buret
-
device used for the precise delivery of variable liquid volumes, such as in a titration analysis
- calories (cal)
-
unit of heat or other energy; the amount of energy required to raise 1 gram of water by 1 degree Celsius; 1 cal is defined as 4.184 J
- calorimeter
-
device used to measure the amount of heat absorbed or released in a chemical or physical process
- calorimetry
-
process of measuring the amount of heat involved in a chemical or physical process
- Capillary action
-
flow of liquid within a porous material due to the attraction of the liquid molecules to the surface of the material and to other liquid molecules
- cathode
-
electrode in an electrochemical cell at which reduction occurs; information about the cathode is recorded on the right side of the salt bridge in cell notation
- cathodic protection
-
method of protecting metal by using a sacrificial anode and effectively making the metal that needs protecting the cathode, thus preventing its oxidation
- Cation
-
positively charged atom or molecule (contains fewer electrons than protons)
- cell notation
-
shorthand way to represent the reactions in an electrochemical cell
- cell potential
-
created when two dissimilar metals are connected together and is a measure of the energy per unit charge available from the oxidation-reduction reaction
- Celsius (°C)
-
Unit of temperature; water freezes at 0 °C and boils at 100 °C on this scale.
- Chalcogen
-
element in group 16
- Charles’s law
-
volume of a given number of moles of gas is directly proportional to its kelvin temperature when the pressure is held constant
- chemical change
-
change producing a different kind of matter from the original kind of matter
- Chemical equation
-
symbolic representation of a chemical reaction
- chemical property
-
behavior that is related to the change of one kind of matter into another kind of matter
- Chemical symbol
-
one-, two-, or three-letter abbreviation used to represent an element or its atoms
- chemical thermodynamics
-
area of science that deals with the relationships between heat, work, and all forms of energy associated with chemical and physical processes
- chemistry
-
Study of the composition, properties, and interactions of matter
- Clausius-Clapeyron equation
-
mathematical relationship between the temperature, vapor pressure, and enthalpy of vaporization for a substance
- Coefficient
-
number placed in front of symbols or formulas in a chemical equation to indicate their relative amount
- Cohesive force
-
force of attraction between identical molecules
- Colligative property
-
property of a solution that depends only on the concentration of a solute species
- Colloid
-
(also, colloidal dispersion) mixture in which relatively large solid or liquid particles are dispersed uniformly throughout a gas, liquid, or solid
- Combustion analysis
-
gravimetric technique used to determine the elemental composition of a compound via the collection and weighing of its gaseous combustion products
- Combustion reaction
-
vigorous redox reaction producing significant amounts of energy in the form of heat and, sometimes, light
- common ion effect
-
effect on equilibrium when a substance with an ion in common with the dissolved species is added to the solution; causes a decrease in the solubility of an ionic species, or a decrease in the ionization of a weak acid or base
- Complete ionic equation
-
chemical equation in which all dissolved ionic reactants and products, including spectator ions, are explicitly represented by formulas for their dissociated ions
- composition reaction
-
A chemical reaction in which a single substance is produced from multiple reactants.
- compounds
-
pure substance that can be decomposed into two or more elements
- Compressibility factor (Z)
-
ratio of the experimentally measured molar volume for a gas to its molar volume as computed from the ideal gas equation
- Concentrated
-
qualitative term for a solution containing solute at a relatively high concentration
- Concentration
-
quantitative measure of the relative amounts of solute and solvent present in a solution
- Condensation
-
change from a gaseous to a liquid state
- conjugate acid
-
the product that results when a base accepts a proton
- conjugate base
-
the product that remains after an acid donates a proton
- Continuous spectrum
-
electromagnetic radiation given off in an unbroken series of wavelengths (e.g., white light from the sun)
- coordinate covalent bond
-
(also, dative bond) bond formed when one atom provides both electrons in a shared pair
- core electrons
-
electron in an atom that occupies the orbitals of the inner shells
- Corrosion
-
degradation of metal through an electrochemical process
- Covalent bond
-
attractive force between the nuclei of a molecule’s atoms and pairs of electrons between the atoms
- Covalent compound
-
(also, molecular compound) composed of molecules formed by atoms of two or more different elements
- covalent radius
-
one-half the distance between the nuclei of two identical atoms when they are joined by a covalent bond
- Crenation
-
process whereby biological cells become shriveled due to loss of water by osmosis
- Critical point
-
temperature and pressure above which a gas cannot be condensed into a liquid
- Cubic centimeter
-
Volume of a cube with an edge length of exactly 1 cm.
- Cubic meter
-
SI unit of volume.
- d orbitals
-
written as: d orbitals
region of space with high electron density that is either four lobed or contains a dumbbell and torus shape; describes orbitals with l = 2. An electron in this orbital is called a d electron - Dalton (Da)
-
alternative unit equivalent to the atomic mass unit
- Dalton’s atomic theory
-
set of postulates that established the fundamental properties of atoms
- Dalton’s law of partial pressures
-
total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the component gases.
- decomposition reaction
-
A chemical reaction in which a single substance becomes more than one substance.
- degeneracy
-
electron orbitals having the same energy levels
- Density
-
Ratio of mass to volume for a substance or object.
- Deposition
-
change from a gaseous state directly to a solid state
- diatomic molecules
-
molecules that contain two identical atoms chemically bonded together
- Diffusion
-
movement of an atom or molecule from a region of relatively high concentration to one of relatively low concentration (discussed in this chapter with regard to gaseous species, but applicable to species in any phase)
- Dilute
-
qualitative term for a solution containing solute at a relatively low concentration
- Dilution
-
process of adding solvent to a solution in order to lower the concentration of solutes
- Dimensional analysis
-
(also, factor-label method) versatile mathematical approach that can be applied to computations ranging from simple unit conversions to more complex, multi-step calculations involving several different quantities
- Dipole moment
-
property of a molecule that describes the separation of charge determined by the sum of the individual bond moments based on the molecular structure
- dipole-dipole attraction
-
intermolecular attraction between two permanent dipoles
- diprotic acid
-
A diprotic acid is an acid that yields two H+ ions per acid molecule. Examples of diprotic acids are sulfuric acid, H2SO4, and carbonic acid, H2CO3
- Dispersed phase
-
substance present as relatively large solid or liquid particles in a colloid
- Dispersion force
-
(also, London dispersion force) attraction between two rapidly fluctuating, temporary dipoles; significant only when particles are very close together
- Dispersion medium
-
solid, liquid, or gas in which colloidal particles are dispersed
- Dissociation
-
physical process accompanying the dissolution of an ionic compound in which the compound’s constituent ions are solvated and dispersed throughout the solution
- Dissolved
-
describes the process by which solute components are dispersed in a solvent
- Double bond
-
covalent bond in which two pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms
- double-replacement reaction
-
A chemical reaction in which parts of two ionic compounds are exchanged.
- dry cell
-
primary battery, also called a zinc-carbon battery; can be used in any orientation because it uses a paste as the electrolyte; tends to leak electrolyte when stored
- Dynamic equilibrium
-
state of a system in which reciprocal processes are occurring at equal rates
- effective nuclear charge, Zeff
-
charge that leads to the Coulomb force exerted by the nucleus on an electron, calculated as the nuclear charge minus shielding
- Effusion
-
transfer of gaseous atoms or molecules from a container to a vacuum through very small openings
- electric charge
-
physical property of an object that causes it to be attracted toward or repelled from another charged object; each charged object generates and is influenced by a force called an electric force
- electric forces
-
noncontact force observed between electrically charged objects
- electrolysis
-
process using electrical energy to cause a nonspontaneous process to occur
- electrolytes
-
substances that produce ions when dissolved in water and whose aqueous solutions can conduct electricity
- electrolytic cells
-
electrochemical cell in which electrolysis is used; electrochemical cell with negative cell potentials
- Electromagnetic radiation
-
energy transmitted by waves that have an electric-field component and a magnetic-field component
- Electromagnetic spectrum
-
range of energies that electromagnetic radiation can comprise, including radio, microwaves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays; since electromagnetic radiation energy is proportional to the frequency and inversely proportional to the wavelength, the spectrum can also be specified by ranges of frequencies or wavelengths
- Electron
-
negatively charged, subatomic particle of relatively low mass located outside the nucleus
- electron affinity
-
energy required to add an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion
- electron configurations
-
electronic structure of an atom in its ground state given as a listing of the orbitals occupied by the electrons
- Electron-pair geometry
-
arrangement around a central atom of all regions of electron density (bonds, lone pairs, or unpaired electrons)
- Electronegativity
-
tendency of an atom to attract electrons in a bond to itself
- electroplating
-
depositing a thin layer of one metal on top of a conducting surface
- electrostatic attraction
-
phenomenon of two objects with opposite charges attracting each other
- electrostatic repulsion
-
phenomenon of two objects with like charges repelling each other
- elements
-
substance that is composed of a single type of atom; a substance that cannot be decomposed by a chemical change
- Empirical formula mass
-
sum of average atomic masses for all atoms represented in an empirical formula
- empirical formulas
-
simplest or most reduced ratio of elements in a compound
- Emulsifying agent
-
amphiphilic substance used to stabilize the particles of some emulsions
- Emulsion
-
colloid formed from immiscible liquids
- End point
-
measured volume of titrant solution that yields the change in sample solution appearance or other property expected for stoichiometric equivalence (see equivalence point)
- endothermic process
-
chemical reaction or physical change that absorbs heat
- Energy
-
capacity to supply heat or do work
- enthalpy (H)
-
sum of a system’s internal energy and the mathematical product of its pressure and volume
- enthalpy change (ΔH)
-
heat released or absorbed by a system under constant pressure during a chemical or physical process
- Equatorial position
-
one of the three positions in a trigonal bipyramidal geometry with 120° angles between them; the axial positions are located at a 90° angle
- equilibrium
-
in chemical reactions, the state in which the conversion of reactants into products and the conversion of products back into reactants occur simultaneously at the same rate; state of balance
- equilibrium constant
-
value of the reaction quotient for a system at equilibrium
- Equivalence point
-
volume of titrant solution required to react completely with the analyte in a titration analysis; provides a stoichiometric amount of titrant for the sample’s analyte according to the titration reaction
- Exact number
-
Number derived by counting or by definition
- Excess reactant
-
reactant present in an amount greater than required by the reaction stoichiometry
- Excited state
-
state having an energy greater than the ground-state energy
- exothermic process
-
chemical reaction or physical change that releases heat
- expansion work
-
work done as a system expands or contracts against external pressure
- extensive property
-
property of a substance that depends on the amount of the substance
- factor-label method
-
versatile mathematical approach that can be applied to computations ranging from simple unit conversions to more complex, multi-step calculations involving several different quantities
- Fahrenheit
-
Unit of temperature; water freezes at 32 °F and boils at 212 °F on this scale
- first law of thermodynamics
-
internal energy of a system changes due to heat flow in or out of the system or work done on or by the system
- Formal charge
-
charge that would result on an atom by taking the number of valence electrons on the neutral atom and subtracting the nonbonding electrons and the number of bonds (one-half of the bonding electrons)
- formula mass
-
sum of the average masses for all atoms represented in a chemical formula; for covalent compounds, this is also the molecular mass
- Free radical
-
molecule that contains an odd number of electrons
- Freezing
-
change from a liquid state to a solid state
- Freezing point
-
temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are in equilibrium; see also melting point
- Freezing point depression
-
lowering of the freezing point of a liquid by addition of a solute
- Freezing point depression constant
-
(also, cryoscopic constant) proportionality constant in the equation relating freezing point depression to solute molality
- Frequency (ν)
-
number of wave cycles (peaks or troughs) that pass a specified point in space per unit time
- fuel cell
-
devices that produce an electrical current as long as fuel and oxidizer are continuously added; more efficient than internal combustion engines
- Fundamental unit of charge
-
(also called the elementary charge) equals the magnitude of the charge of an electron (e) with e = 1.602 × 10−19 C
- Galvanic cells
-
electrochemical cell that involves a spontaneous oxidation-reduction reaction; electrochemical cells with positive cell potentials; also called a voltaic cell
- galvanized iron
-
method for protecting iron by covering it with zinc, which will oxidize before the iron; zinc-plated iron
- gas
-
state in which matter has neither definite volume nor shape
- Gel
-
colloidal dispersion of a liquid in a solid
- Graham’s law of effusion
-
rates of diffusion and effusion of gases are inversely proportional to the square roots of their molecular masses
- Gravimetric analysis
-
quantitative chemical analysis method involving the separation of an analyte from a sample by a physical or chemical process and subsequent mass measurements of the analyte, reaction product, and/or sample
- Ground state
-
state in which the electrons in an atom, ion, or molecule have the lowest energy possible
- Group
-
vertical column of the periodic table
- groups
-
vertical column of the periodic table
- Half-reaction
-
an equation that shows whether each reactant loses or gains electrons in a reaction.
- Halogen
-
element in group 17
- Heat (q)
-
transfer of thermal energy between two bodies
- heat capacity (C)
-
extensive property of a body of matter that represents the quantity of heat required to increase its temperature by 1 degree Celsius (or 1 kelvin)
- Heisenberg uncertainty principle
-
It is fundamentally impossible to determine simultaneously and exactly both the momentum and the position of a particle.
- Hemolysis
-
rupture of red blood cells due to the accumulation of excess water by osmosis
- Henry’s law
-
law stating the proportional relationship between the concentration of dissolved gas in a solution and the partial pressure of the gas in contact with the solution
- Hertz (Hz)
-
the unit of frequency, which is the number of cycles per second, s−1
- Hess’s law
-
if a process can be represented as the sum of several steps, the enthalpy change of the process equals the sum of the enthalpy changes of the steps
- heterogeneous equilibrium
-
equilibria between reactants and products in different phases
- heterogeneous mixture
-
combination of substances with a composition that varies from point to point
- homogeneous equilibrium
-
equilibria within a single phase
- homogeneous mixture
-
(also, solution) combination of substances with a composition that is uniform throughout
- Hund’s rule
-
Every orbital in a sublevel is singly occupied before any orbital is doubly occupied.
All of the electrons in singly occupied orbitals have the same spin (to maximize total spin). - hydrocarbons
-
compound composed only of hydrogen and carbon; the major component of fossil fuels
- Hydrogen bonding
-
occurs when exceptionally strong dipoles attract; bonding that exists when hydrogen is bonded to one of the three most electronegative elements: F, O, or N
- Hydrostatic pressure
-
pressure exerted by a fluid due to gravity
- Hypertonic
-
of greater osmotic pressure
- Hypervalent molecule
-
molecule containing at least one main group element that has more than eight electrons in its valence shell
- Hypothesis
-
Tentative explanation of observations that acts as a guide for gathering and checking information
- Hypotonic
-
of less osmotic pressure
- Ideal gas
-
hypothetical gas whose physical properties are perfectly described by the gas laws
- Ideal gas constant (R)
-
constant derived from the ideal gas equation R = 0.08226 L atm mol–1 K–1 or 8.314 L kPa mol–1 K–1
- Ideal gas law
-
relation between the pressure, volume, amount, and temperature of a gas under conditions derived by combination of the simple gas laws
- Ideal solution
-
solution that forms with no accompanying energy change
- Immiscible
-
of negligible mutual solubility; typically refers to liquid substances
- Indicator
-
substance added to the sample in a titration analysis to permit visual detection of the end point
- Induced dipole
-
temporary dipole formed when the electrons of an atom or molecule are distorted by the instantaneous dipole of a neighboring atom or molecule
- Inert electrodes
-
electrode that allows current to flow, but that does not otherwise participate in the oxidation-reduction reaction in an electrochemical cell; the mass of an inert electrode does not change during the oxidation-reduction reaction; inert electrodes are often made of platinum or gold because these metals are chemically unreactive.
- Inert gas
-
(also, noble gas) element in group 18
- Inert pair effect
-
tendency of heavy atoms to form ions in which their valence s electrons are not lost
- initial rate
-
instantaneous rate of a chemical reaction at t = 0 s (immediately after the reaction has begun)
- Inner transition metal
-
(also, lanthanide or actinide) element in the bottom two rows; if in the first row, also called lanthanide, or if in the second row, also called actinide
- Insoluble
-
of relatively low solubility; dissolving only to a slight extent
- Instantaneous dipole
-
temporary dipole that occurs for a brief moment in time when the electrons of an atom or molecule are distributed asymmetrically
- instantaneous rate
-
rate of a chemical reaction at any instant in time, determined by the slope of the line tangential to a graph of concentration as a function of time
- Intensity
-
property of wave-propagated energy related to the amplitude of the wave, such as brightness of light or loudness of sound
- intensive property
-
property of a substance that is independent of the amount of the substance
- Interference pattern
-
pattern typically consisting of alternating bright and dark fringes; it results from constructive and destructive interference of waves
- Intermolecular force
-
noncovalent attractive force between atoms, molecules, and/or ions
- internal energy (U)
-
total of all possible kinds of energy present in a substance or substances
- Ion
-
electrically charged atom or molecule (contains unequal numbers of protons and electrons)
- Ion pair
-
solvated anion/cation pair held together by moderate electrostatic attraction
- ion-dipole attraction
-
electrostatic attraction between an ion and a polar molecule
- ion-product constant for water (Kw)
-
equilibrium constant for the autoionization of water
- Ionic bond
-
electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely charged ions of an ionic compound
- Ionic compound
-
compound composed of cations and anions combined in ratios, yielding an electrically neutral substance
- ionization energy
-
energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion; the associated number (e.g., second ionization energy) corresponds to the charge of the ion produced (X2+)
- isoelectronic
-
group of ions or atoms that have identical electron configurations
- Isotonic
-
of equal osmotic pressure
- Isotopes
-
atoms that contain the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
- joule (J)
-
SI unit of energy; 1 joule is the kinetic energy of an object with a mass of 2 kilograms moving with a velocity of 1 meter per second, 1 J = 1 kg m2/s and 4.184 J = 1 cal
- Kc
-
equilibrium constant for reactions based on concentrations of reactants and products
- Kelvin (K)
-
SI unit of temperature; 273.15 K = 0 ºC
- Kilogram (kg)
-
Standard SI unit of mass; 1 kg = approximately 2.2 pounds
- kinetic energy
-
energy of a moving body, in joules, equal to \frac{1}{2}mv^2 (where m = mass and v = velocity)
- Kinetic molecular theory
-
theory based on simple principles and assumptions that effectively explains ideal gas behavior
- KP
-
written as: KP
equilibrium constant for gas-phase reactions based on partial pressures of reactants and products - Lanthanide
-
inner transition metal in the top of the bottom two rows of the periodic table
- lattice energy
-
energy required to separate one mole of an ionic solid into its component gaseous ions
- Law
-
Statement that summarizes a vast number of experimental observations, and describes or predicts some aspect of the natural world.
- law of conservation of matter
-
when matter converts from one type to another or changes form, there is no detectable change in the total amount of matter present
- Law of constant composition
-
(also, law of definite proportions) all samples of a pure compound contain the same elements in the same proportions by mass
- Law of definite proportions
-
(also, law of constant composition) all samples of a pure compound contain the same elements in the same proportions by mass
- law of mass action
-
when a reversible reaction has attained equilibrium at a given temperature, the reaction quotient remains constant
- Law of multiple proportions
-
when two elements react to form more than one compound, a fixed mass of one element will react with masses of the other element in a ratio of small whole numbers
- Le Châtelier's principle
-
when a chemical system at equilibrium is disturbed, it returns to equilibrium by counteracting the disturbance
- lead acid battery
-
secondary battery that consists of multiple cells; the lead acid battery found in automobiles has six cells and a voltage of 12 V
- Length
-
Measure of one dimension of an object
- Lewis acid
-
any species that can accept a pair of electrons and form a coordinate covalent bond
- Lewis acid-base adduct
-
compound or ion that contains a coordinate covalent bond between a Lewis acid and a Lewis base
- Lewis base
-
any species that can donate a pair of electrons and form a coordinate covalent bond
- Lewis structure
-
diagram showing lone pairs and bonding pairs of electrons in a molecule or an ion
- Lewis symbol
-
symbol for an element or monatomic ion that uses a dot to represent each valence electron in the element or ion
- Limiting reactant
-
reactant present in an amount lower than required by the reaction stoichiometry, thus limiting the amount of product generated
- Line spectrum
-
electromagnetic radiation emitted at discrete wavelengths by a specific atom (or atoms) in an excited state
- Linear
-
shape in which two outside groups are placed on opposite sides of a central atom
- liquid
-
state of matter that has a definite volume but indefinite shape
- Liter (L)
-
Also known as cubic decimeter. Unit of volume; 1 L = 1,000 cm3
- Lithium ion batteries
-
very popular secondary battery; uses lithium ions to conduct current and is light, rechargeable, and produces a nearly constant potential as it discharges
- London dispersion force
-
(also, dispersion force) attraction between two rapidly fluctuating, temporary dipoles; significant only when particles are very close together
- Lone pair
-
two (a pair of) valence electrons that are not used to form a covalent bond
- Macroscopic domain
-
Realm of everyday things that are large enough to sense directly by human sight and touch.
- magnetic quantum number
-
quantum number signifying the orientation of an atomic orbital around the nucleus; orbitals having different values of ml but the same subshell value of l have the same energy (are degenerate), but this degeneracy can be removed by application of an external magnetic field
- Main-group element
-
(also, representative element) element in columns 1, 2, and 12–18
- Manometer
-
device used to measure the pressure of a gas trapped in a container
- mass
-
fundamental property indicating amount of matter
- Mass number (A)
-
sum of the numbers of neutrons and protons in the nucleus of an atom
- Mass percentage
-
ratio of solute-to-solution mass expressed as a percentage
- mass-mass calculations
-
A calculation in which you start with a given mass of a substance and calculate the mass of another substance involved in the chemical equation.
- mass-volume percent
-
ratio of solute mass to solution volume, expressed as a percentage
- Matter
-
anything that occupies space and has mass
- Mean free path
-
average distance a molecule travels between collisions
- Melting
-
change from a solid state to a liquid state
- Melting point
-
temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are in equilibrium; see also freezing point
- Metal
-
element that is shiny, malleable, good conductor of heat and electricity
- Metalloid
-
element that conducts heat and electricity moderately well, and possesses some properties of metals and some properties of nonmetals
- Meter (m)
-
Standard metric and SI unit of length; 1 m = approximately 1.094 yards
- Microscopic domain
-
Realm of things that are much too small to be sensed directly.
- Milliliter (mL)
-
1/1,000 of a liter; equal to 1 cm3
- Minerals
-
solid materials that occur in the earth
- Miscible
-
mutually soluble in all proportions; typically refers to liquid substances
- mixture
-
matter that can be separated into its components by physical means
- Molality (m)
-
a concentration unit defined as the ratio of the numbers of moles of solute to the mass of the solvent in kilograms
- Molar mass (g/mol)
-
the mass in grams of 1 mole of that substance
- molar solubility
-
solubility of a compound expressed in units of moles per liter (mol/L)
- Molarity (M)
-
unit of concentration, defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 liter of solution
- Mole
-
the amount of a substance containing the same number of atoms as the number of atoms in a sample of pure 12C weighing exactly 12 g
- Mole fraction (X)
-
concentration unit defined as the ratio of the molar amount of a mixture component to the total number of moles of all mixture components
- mole-mass calculation
-
A calculation in which you start with a given number of moles of a substance and calculate the mass of another substance involved in the chemical equation, or vice versa.
- Molecular compound
-
(also, covalent compound) composed of molecules formed by atoms of two or more different elements
- Molecular equation
-
chemical equation in which all reactants and products are represented as neutral substances
- molecular formula
-
true formula for a compound; lists how many atoms of each element are in the compound
- Molecular structure
-
structure that includes only the placement of the atoms in the molecule
- molecule
-
bonded collection of two or more atoms of the same or different elements
- monatomic ions
-
ion composed of a single atom
- multiple equilibria
-
system characterized by more than one state of balance between a slightly soluble ionic solid and an aqueous solution of ions working simultaneously
- Net ionic equation
-
chemical equation in which only those dissolved ionic reactants and products that undergo a chemical or physical change are represented (excludes spectator ions)
- neutral solution
-
The solution in which the concentration of hydroxide ions equals the concentration of hydrogen ions [H3O+] = [OH−]
- Neutralization reaction
-
reaction between an acid and a base to produce salt and water
- Neutron
-
uncharged, subatomic particle located in the nucleus
- Nickel-cadmium
-
(NiCd battery) secondary battery that uses cadmium, which is a toxic heavy metal; heavier than lithium ion batteries, but with similar performance characteristics
- Noble gas
-
(also, inert gas) element in group 18
- Node
-
any point of a standing wave with zero amplitude
- Nomenclature
-
system of rules for naming objects of interest
- Non-polar covalent bond
-
(also, pure covalent bond) covalent bond between atoms of identical electronegativities
- nonelectrolytes
-
are substances that do not readily ionize (do not produce ions) when dissolved in aqueous (water) solution or in molten state and are poor conductors of electricity.
- Nonmetal
-
element that appears dull, poor conductor of heat and electricity
- Normal boiling point
-
temperature at which a liquid’s vapor pressure equals 1 atm (760 torr)
- Nucleus
-
massive, positively charged center of an atom made up of protons and neutrons
- nutritional calorie (Calorie)
-
unit used for quantifying energy provided by digestion of foods, defined as 1000 cal or 1 kcal
- Octahedral
-
shape in which six outside groups are placed around a central atom such that a three-dimensional shape is generated with four groups forming a square and the other two forming the apex of two pyramids, one above and one below the square plane
- Octet rule
-
guideline that states main group atoms will form structures in which eight valence electrons interact with each nucleus, counting bonding electrons as interacting with both atoms connected by the bond
- orbital diagrams
-
pictorial representation of the electron configuration showing each orbital as a box and each electron as an arrow
- Osmosis
-
diffusion of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane
- Osmotic pressure (Π)
-
opposing pressure required to prevent bulk transfer of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane
- overpotential
-
difference between the theoretical potential and actual potential in an electrolytic cell; the “extra” voltage required to make some nonspontaneous electrochemical reaction to occur
- Oxidation
-
process in which an element’s oxidation number is increased by loss of electrons
- Oxidation number
-
(also, oxidation state) the charge each atom of an element would have in a compound if the compound were ionic
- Oxidation-reduction reaction
-
(also, redox reaction) reaction involving a change in oxidation number for one or more reactant elements
- Oxidizing agent
-
(also, oxidant) substance that brings about the oxidation of another substance, and in the process becomes reduced
- Oxyacid
-
compound that contains hydrogen, oxygen, and one other element, bonded in a way that imparts acidic properties to the compound (ability to release H+ ions when dissolved in water)
- Oxyanions
-
polyatomic anion composed of a central atom bonded to oxygen atoms
- p orbitals
-
written as: p orbitals
dumbbell-shaped region of space with high electron density, describes orbitals with l = 1. An electron in this orbital is called a p electron - Partial pressure
-
pressure exerted by an individual gas in a mixture
- Partially miscible
-
of moderate mutual solubility; typically refers to liquid substances
- parts per billion (ppb)
-
ratio of solute-to-solution mass multiplied by 109
- parts per million (ppm)
-
ratio of solute-to-solution mass multiplied by 106
- Pascal (Pa)
-
SI unit of pressure; 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
- passivation
-
It is a widely-used metal finishing process to prevent corrosion
- Pauli exclusion principle
-
specifies that no two electrons in an atom can have the same value for all four quantum numbers
- Percent composition
-
percentage by mass of the various elements in a compound
- percent ionization
-
ratio of the concentration of the ionized acid to the initial acid concentration, times 100
- Percent yield
-
measure of the efficiency of a reaction, expressed as a percentage of the theoretical yield
- Period
-
(also, series) horizontal row of the periodic table
- Periodic law
-
properties of the elements are periodic function of their atomic numbers.
- Periodic table
-
table of the elements that places elements with similar chemical properties close together
- pH
-
logarithmic measure of the concentration of hydronium ions in a solution
- pH scale
-
The pH scale measures how acidic an object is.
- Phase diagram
-
pressure-temperature graph summarizing conditions under which the phases of a substance can exist
- Photon
-
smallest possible packet of electromagnetic radiation, a particle of light
- physical change
-
change in the state or properties of matter that does not involve a change in its chemical composition
- physical property
-
characteristic of matter that is not associated with any change in its chemical composition
- plasma
-
gaseous state of matter containing a large number of electrically charged atoms and/or molecules
- Pnictogen
-
element in group 15
- pOH
-
logarithmic measure of the concentration of hydroxide ions in a solution
- Polar covalent bond
-
covalent bond between atoms of different electronegativities; a covalent bond with a positive end and a negative end
- Polar molecule
-
(also, dipole) molecule with an overall dipole moment
- Polarizability
-
measure of the ability of a charge to distort a molecule’s charge distribution (electron cloud)
- polyatomic ions
-
ion composed of more than one atom
- polymorphs
-
the ability of a substance to crystallize into different crystalline forms
- position of equilibrium
-
concentrations or partial pressures of components of a reaction at equilibrium (commonly used to describe conditions before a disturbance)
- potential energy
-
energy of a particle or system of particles derived from relative position, composition, or condition
- Pounds per square inch (psi)
-
unit of pressure common in the US
- Precipitate
-
insoluble product that forms from reaction of soluble reactants
- Precipitation reaction
-
reaction that produces one or more insoluble products; when reactants are ionic compounds, sometimes called double-displacement or metathesis
- Precision
-
How closely a measurement matches the same measurement when repeated
- Pressure
-
force exerted per unit area
- Primary batteries
-
single-use nonrechargeable battery
- principal quantum number
-
quantum number specifying the shell an electron occupies in an atom
- Product
-
substance formed by a chemical or physical change; shown on the right side of the arrow in a chemical equation
- Proton
-
positively charged, subatomic particle located in the nucleus
- pure substance
-
homogeneous substance that has a constant composition
- Quantitative analysis
-
the determination of the amount or concentration of a substance in a sample
- Quantization
-
occurring only in specific discrete values, not continuous
- quantum mechanics
-
the study of matter and its interactions with energy on the scale of atomic and subatomic particles. It includes the work of Schrodinger, Heisenberg and other scientists.
- Quantum number
-
integer number having only specific allowed values and used to characterize the arrangement of electrons in an atom
- Raoult’s law
-
the partial pressure exerted by a solution component is equal to the product of the component’s mole fraction in the solution and its equilibrium vapor pressure in the pure state
- rate expression
-
mathematical representation relating reaction rate to changes in amount, concentration, or pressure of reactant or product species per unit time
- Rate of diffusion
-
amount of gas diffusing through a given area over a given time
- rate of reaction
-
measure of the speed at which a chemical reaction takes place
- Reactant
-
substance undergoing a chemical or physical change; shown on the left side of the arrow in a chemical equation
- reaction quotient
-
ratio of the product of molar concentrations (or pressures) of the products to that of the reactants, each concentration (or pressure) being raised to the power equal to the coefficient in the equation
- Reducing agent
-
(also, reductant) substance that brings about the reduction of another substance, and in the process becomes oxidized
- Reduction
-
process in which an element’s oxidation number is decreased by gain of electrons
- Representative element
-
(also, main-group element) element in columns 1, 2, and 12–18
- Resonance
-
situation in which one Lewis structure is insufficient to describe the bonding in a molecule and the average of multiple structures is observed
- Resonance forms
-
two or more Lewis structures that have the same arrangement of atoms but different arrangements of electrons
- Resonance hybrid
-
average of the resonance forms shown by the individual Lewis structures
- reversible reaction
-
chemical reaction that can proceed in both the forward and reverse directions under given conditions
- Root mean square velocity (urms)
-
measure of average velocity for a group of particles calculated as the square root of the average squared velocity
- Rounding
-
Procedure used to ensure that calculated results properly reflect the uncertainty in the measurements used in the calculation
- s orbitals
-
spherical region of space with high electron density, describes orbitals with l = 0. An electron in this orbital is called an s electron
- sacrificial anodes
-
more active, inexpensive metal used as the anode in cathodic protection; frequently made from magnesium or zinc
- Salt
-
Ionic compound that can be formed by the reaction of an acid with a base that contains a cation and an anion other than hydroxide or oxide. A neutral chemical compound held together by an ionic bond consisting of positively charged cations and negatively charged anions.
- Saturated
-
of concentration equal to solubility; containing the maximum concentration of solute possible for a given temperature and pressure
- Scientific method
-
Path of discovery that leads from question and observation to law or hypothesis to theory, combined with experimental verification of the hypothesis and any necessary modification of the theory.
- Scientific Notation
-
method to simplify very large and very small numbers by utilizing a base 10 exponential methodology
- Second (s)
-
Standards fixed by international agreement in the International System of Units (Le Système International d’Unités)
- Secondary batteries
-
battery that can be recharged
- selective precipitation
-
process in which ions are separated using differences in their solubility with a given precipitating reagent
- Semipermeable membrane
-
a membrane that selectively permits passage of certain ions or molecules
- Series
-
(also, period) horizontal row of the period table
- shells
-
set of orbitals with the same principal quantum number, n
- SI units (International System of Units)
-
Standards fixed by international agreement in the International System of Units (Le Système International d’Unités)
- significant digits
-
(also, significant figures) all of the measured digits in a determination, including the uncertain last digit
- Significant figures
-
(also, significant digits) all of the measured digits in a determination, including the uncertain last digit
- Single bond
-
bond in which a single pair of electrons is shared between two atoms
- Single-displacement reaction
-
(also, replacement) redox reaction involving the oxidation of an elemental substance by an ionic species
- single-replacement reaction
-
A chemical reaction in which one element is substituted for another element in a compound.
- solid
-
state of matter that is rigid, has a definite shape, and has a fairly constant volume
- Solubility
-
the extent to which a substance may be dissolved in water, or any solvent
- solubility product (Ksp)
-
equilibrium constant for the dissolution of a slightly soluble electrolyte
- Soluble
-
of relatively high solubility; dissolving to a relatively large extent
- Solute
-
solution component present in a concentration less than that of the solvent
- solution
-
Another name for a homogeneous mixture
- Solvation
-
exothermic process in which intermolecular attractive forces between the solute and solvent in a solution are established
- Solvent
-
solution component present in a concentration that is higher relative to other components
- species (chemical)
-
can be a group of atoms, molecules, ions etc. that are chemically identical
- specific heat capacity (c)
-
intensive property of a substance that represents the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of the substance by 1 degree Celsius (or 1 kelvin)
- Spectator ion
-
ion that does not undergo a chemical or physical change during a reaction, but its presence is required to maintain charge neutrality
- spin quantum number
-
number specifying the electron spin direction, either +1/2 or -1/2
- Spontaneous process
-
physical or chemical change that occurs without the addition of energy from an external source
- standard cell potential
-
the cell potential when all reactants and products are in their standard states (1 bar or 1 atm or gases; 1 M for solutes), usually at 298.15 K; can be calculated by subtracting the standard reduction potential for the half-reaction at the anode from the standard reduction potential for the half-reaction occurring at the cathode
- Standard conditions of temperature and pressure (STP)
-
273.15 K (0 °C) and 1 atm (101.325 kPa)
- Standard enthalpy of combustion
-
heat released when one mole of a compound undergoes complete combustion under standard conditions
- standard enthalpy of formation
-
enthalpy change of a chemical reaction in which 1 mole of a pure substance is formed from its elements in their most stable states under standard state conditions
- standard hydrogen electrode (SHE)
-
the electrode consists of hydrogen gas bubbling through hydrochloric acid over an inert platinum electrode whose reduction at standard conditions is assigned a value of 0 V; the reference point for standard reduction potentials
- Standard molar volume
-
volume of 1 mole of gas at STP, approximately 22.4 L for gases behaving ideally
- standard state
-
set of physical conditions as accepted as common reference conditions for reporting thermodynamic properties; 1 bar of pressure, and solutions at 1 molar concentrations, usually at a temperature of 298.15 K
- Standing wave
-
(also, stationary wave) localized wave phenomenon characterized by discrete wavelengths determined by the boundary conditions used to generate the waves; standing waves are inherently quantized
- state function
-
property depending only on the state of a system, and not the path taken to reach that state
- static electricity
-
buildup of electric charge on the surface of an object; the arrangement of the charge remains constant (“static”)
- Stock system
-
The system of indicating a cation’s charge with roman numerals.
- Stoichiometric factor
-
ratio of coefficients in a balanced chemical equation, used in computations relating amounts of reactants and products
- Stoichiometry
-
relationships between the amounts of reactants and products of a chemical reaction
- stress
-
change to a reaction’s conditions that may cause a shift in the equilibrium
- Strong acid
-
acid that reacts completely when dissolved in water to yield hydronium ions
- Strong base
-
base that reacts completely when dissolved in water to yield hydroxide ions
- Strong electrolyte
-
a substance that dissociates or ionizes completely when dissolved in water and can conduct electricity.
- structural formula
-
shows the atoms in a molecule and how they are connected
- Sublimation
-
change from solid state directly to gaseous state
- subshell
-
set of orbitals in an atom with the same values of n and l
- Supercritical fluid
-
substance at a temperature and pressure higher than its critical point; exhibits properties intermediate between those of gaseous and liquid states
- Supersaturated
-
of concentration that exceeds solubility; a nonequilibrium state
- Surface tension
-
energy required to increase the area, or length, of a liquid surface by a given amount
- surroundings
-
all matter other than the system being studied
- Symbolic domain
-
Specialized language used to represent components of the macroscopic and microscopic domains, such as chemical symbols, chemical formulas, chemical equations, graphs, drawings, and calculations.
- system
-
portion of matter undergoing a chemical or physical change being studied
- Temperature
-
ntensive property of matter that is a quantitative measure of “hotness” and “coldness”
- Tetrahedral
-
shape in which four outside groups are placed around a central atom such that a three-dimensional shape is generated with four corners and 109.5° angles between each pair and the central atom
- Theoretical yield
-
amount of product that may be produced from a given amount of reactant(s) according to the reaction stoichiometry
- Theory
-
Well-substantiated, comprehensive, testable explanation of a particular aspect of nature.
- Thermal energy
-
kinetic energy associated with the random motion of atoms and molecules
- thermochemistry
-
study of measuring the amount of heat absorbed or released during a chemical reaction or a physical change
- titrant
-
is the "known" solution which has a precise and accurate concentration. It is placed in the buret during a titration experiment
- titration
-
a technique where a solution of known concentration is used to determine the concentration of an unknown solution. Typically, the titrant (the know solution) is added from a buret to a known quantity of the analyte (the unknown solution) until the reaction is complete.
- Titration analysis
-
quantitative chemical analysis method that involves measuring the volume of a reactant solution required to completely react with the analyte in a sample
- Torr
-
unit of pressure
- Transition metal
-
element in columns 3–11
- Trigonal bipyramidal
-
shape in which five outside groups are placed around a central atom such that three form a flat triangle with 120° angles between each pair and the central atom, and the other two form the apex of two pyramids, one above and one below the triangular plane
- Trigonal planar
-
shape in which three outside groups are placed in a flat triangle around a central atom with 120° angles between each pair and the central atom
- Triple bond
-
bond in which three pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms
- Triple point
-
temperature and pressure at which the vapor, liquid, and solid phases of a substance are in equilibrium
- Tyndall effect
-
scattering of visible light by a colloidal dispersion
- Uncertainty
-
Estimate of amount by which measurement differs from true value
- Unified atomic mass unit (u)
-
alternative unit equivalent to the atomic mass unit
- Unit
-
Sandard of comparison for measurements
- Unit conversion factor
-
Ratio of equivalent quantities expressed with different units; used to convert from one unit to a different unit
- Unsaturated
-
of concentration less than solubility
- valence electrons
-
electrons in the outermost or valence shell (highest value of n) of a ground-state atom; determine how an element reacts
- valence shell
-
outermost shell of electrons in a ground-state atom; for main group elements, the orbitals with the highest n level (s and p subshells) are in the valence shell, while for transition metals, the highest energy s and d subshells make up the valence shell and for inner transition elements, the highest s, d, and f subshells are included
- Valence Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion theory (VSEPR)
-
theory used to predict the bond angles in a molecule based on positioning regions of high electron density as far apart as possible to minimize electrostatic repulsion
- Van der Waals equation
-
modified version of the ideal gas equation containing additional terms to account for non-ideal gas behavior
- Van der Waals force
-
attractive or repulsive force between molecules, including dipole-dipole, dipole-induced dipole, and London dispersion forces; does not include forces due to covalent or ionic bonding, or the attraction between ions and molecules
- van der Waals forces
-
attractive or repulsive force between molecules, including dipole-dipole, dipole-induced dipole, and London dispersion forces; does not include forces due to covalent or ionic bonding, or the attraction between ions and molecules
- van’t Hoff factor (i)
-
the ratio of the number of moles of particles in a solution to the number of moles of formula units dissolved in the solution
- Vapor pressure
-
(also, equilibrium vapor pressure) pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with a solid or a liquid at a given temperature
- Vapor pressure of water
-
pressure exerted by water vapor in equilibrium with liquid water in a closed container at a specific temperature
- Vaporization
-
change from liquid state to gaseous state
- Vector
-
quantity having magnitude and direction
- Viscosity
-
measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow
- voltaic cells
-
another name for a galvanic cell
- Volume
-
Amount of space occupied by an object
- Volume percentage
-
ratio of solute-to-solution volume expressed as a percentage
- Wave
-
oscillation that can transport energy from one point to another in space
- Wave-particle duality
-
term used to describe the fact that elementary particles including matter exhibit properties of both particles (including localized position, momentum) and waves (including nonlocalization, wavelength, frequency)
- Wavelength (λ)
-
distance between two consecutive peaks or troughs in a wave
- Weak acid
-
acid that reacts only to a slight extent when dissolved in water to yield hydronium ions
- Weak base
-
base that reacts only to a slight extent when dissolved in water to yield hydroxide ions
- Weak electrolyte
-
a substance that ionizes only partially when dissolved in water, thus producing an aqueous solution that conducts electricity poorly.
- Weight
-
force that gravity exerts on an object
- work (w)
-
energy transfer due to changes in external, macroscopic variables such as pressure and volume; or causing matter to move against an opposing force