11.5 Key Takeaways, Knowledge Check and Key Terms
Key Takeaways
- In this chapter, we learned that there are many sources of human diversity. Some of these characteristics are surface-level and superficial, while other differences are deeper or hidden.
- Canada is often celebrated for its policies on equity and multiculturalism. However, within Canadian society there are still ongoing systems of privilege and oppression that impact employment.
- Biases and stereotypes based on surface-level characteristics can lead to discrimination in the workplace.
- It is illegal to discriminate in Ontario workplaces on the basis of race, ethnicity, nationality, sex, gender, sexual orientation, religion, or ability.
- All communication is intercultural communication, which requires an open attitude to understanding and accommodating cultural differences in the workplace to make business connections.
- Using mindfulness (attention, intention, and attitude) we can become more culturally competent communicators.
Knowledge Check
Review your understanding of this chapter’s key concepts by taking the interactive quiz below.
Key Terms
Key terms in this chapter include:
- Diversity
- Surface-level diversity
- Deep-level diversity
- Hidden diversity
- Bias
- Stereotypes
- Discrimination
- Race
- Ethnicity
- Nationality
- Sex
- Gender
- Intersex
- Cisgender (gender identity)
- Transgender (gender identity)
- Masculine (gender expression)
- Feminine (gender expression)
- Transphobia
- Androgenous
- Sexual orientation
- Religion
- Ability
- Similiarity-attraction phenomenon
- Faultline
- Intercultural communication
- Ethnocentric
- Individualistic cultures
- Collectivist cultures
- Monochromic
- Polychronic
- Short-term orientation
- Long-term orientation
- Masculine orientation
- Feminine orientation
- Direct vs indirect communication
- Materialism
- Low-power distance
- High-power distance
- Culture competency
Diversity is the presence of differences among individuals in a group in terms of various aspects (e.g., gender, attraction, race, class, ability, etc.) that may create advantages or barriers to opportunities and resources because of historical and ongoing systems of oppression. See 11.1 Diversity and Inclusion
Surface-level diversity refers to differences you can generally observe in others, like ethnicity, race, gender, age, culture, language, disability, etc. You can often quickly and easily observe these features in a person. And people often do just that, making subtle judgments at the same time, which can lead to bias or discrimination. See 11.1 Diversity and Inclusion
Deep-level diversity, on the other hand, reflects differences that are less visible, like personality, attitude, beliefs, and values. These attributes are generally communicated verbally and non-verbally, so they are not easily noticeable or measurable. See 11.1 Diversity and Inclusion
Hidden diversity includes traits that are deep-level but may be concealed or revealed at the discretion of individuals who possess them. These hidden traits are called invisible social identities (Clair et al., 2005) and may include sexual orientation, a hidden disability (such as a mental illness or chronic disease), racial heritage or socioeconomic status. See 11.1 Diversity and Inclusion
Bias is subjective opinion, preference, prejudice, or inclination, either for or against an individual or group, formed without reasonable justification that influences an individual’s or group’s ability to evaluate a particular situation objectively or accurately. See 11.1 Diversity and Inclusion
A stereotype is a false or generalized, and usually negative, conception of a group of people that results in the unconscious or conscious categorization of each member of that group, without regard for individual differences. See 11.1 Diversity and Inclusion
Discrimination is defined as the unequal treatment of groups or individuals with a history of marginalization either by a person or a group or an institution which, through the denial of certain rights, results in inequality, subordination and/or deprivation of political, education, social, economic, and cultural rights. See 11.1 Diversity and Inclusion
Race is what we call a loaded word because it can bring up strong emotions and connotations. Understandings of race fall into two camps: a biological versus a sociopolitical construction of what it means to belong to a particular racial group. A biological construction of race claims that “pure” races existed and could be distinguished by such physical features as eye color and shape, skin color, and hair. Moreover, these differences could be traced back to genetic differences. This theory has been debunked by numerous scientists and been replaced with the understanding that there are greater genetic differences within racial groups, not between them. In addition, there is no scientific connection with racial identity and cultural traits or behaviors. From a biological standpoint, race is not a valid construct.
Instead of biology, we draw on a sociopolitical understanding of what it means to be of a particular race. This simply means that it is not a person’s DNA that places them into a particular racial grouping, but all of the other factors that create social relations—politics, geography, or migration. See 11.2 Dimensions of Diversity
Ethnicity refers to a person’s or people’s heritage and history, and involves shared cultural traditions and beliefs. Many Canadians identify with several ethnicities (-Canadian). There has been much debate about whether and how information about race and ethnicity in Canada should be tracked (if at all). See 11.2 Dimensions of Diversity
Nationality refers to a people’s nation-state of residence or where they hold citizenship. Most often nationality is derived from the country where one was born, but on occasion people give up their citizenship by birth and migrate to a new country where they claim national identity. For example, an individual could have been born and raised in another country but once they migrate to the Canada and have citizenship, their nationality becomes Canadian. See 11.2 Dimensions of Diversity
A person’s sex is a label, often designated by doctors at birth as male or female, based on an individual’s genitals, hormones, and/or chromosomes. See 11.2 Dimensions of Diversity
Gender is the social construction of masculinity or femininity as it aligns with designated sex at birth in a specific culture and time period.. See 11.2 Dimensions of Diversity
According to the Intersex Society of North America, “intersex” is a general term used when a person is born with a reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn’t seem to fit the typical definitions of female or male. For example, a person might be born appearing to be female on the outside but having mostly male-typical anatomy on the inside. Or a person may be born with mosaic genetics, so that some of her cells have XX chromosomes and some of them have XY. It is important to note that male, female, and intersex aren’t discrete categories, just labels based on social convention. See 11.2 Dimensions of Diversity
An individual is said to be cisgender if the gender that they identify is consistent the sex that they were assigned at birth. See 11.2 Dimensions of Diversity
When an individual does not identify with the gender of the sex that they were assigned at birth, they may identify as transgender. See 11.2 Dimensions of Diversity
While sex is a biological category, gender is, the social construction of masculinity or femininity as it aligns with designated sex at birth in a specific culture and time period. See 11.2 Dimensions of Diversity
While sex is a biological category, gender is, the social construction of masculinity or femininity as it aligns with designated sex at birth in a specific culture and time period. See 11.2 Dimensions of Diversity
Transphobia is the aversion to, fear or hatred or intolerance of trans people and communities. Like other prejudices, it is based on stereotypes and misconceptions that are used to justify discrimination, harassment and violence toward trans people. See 11.2 Dimensions of Diversity
Sexual orientation refers to a person’s preference for sexual or romantic relationships; one may prefer a partner of the same sex, the opposite sex, both, or none. See 11.2 Dimensions of Diversity
Employers are required to respect and accommodate an individual’s religion (aka creed). While the early White settlers were most often Protestant or Roman Catholic, the diversity of religions in Canada has significantly expanded to include all major world religions and increasingly people who do not prescribe to any creed. See 11.2 Dimensions of Diversity
According to Statistics Canada (2015), over 11 percent of Canadians experience pain, mobility, or flexibility challenges. These can be severe enough to require a wheelchair or other mobility aid, or they can be less severe but still make it difficult for people to do jobs that require some type of movement or labour. The next most common disability among Canadians was mental or psychological disabilities (3.9 percent). People with ability challenges can be a significant boost to the ability of an organization to reach its market. A main communication challenge that arises here is misunderstanding on the part of able-bodied people. Supportive communication with others seems to be the key for making employees feel at home. See 11.2 Dimensions of Diversity
There is a tendency for people to be attracted to people similar to themselves. Research shows that individuals communicate less frequently with those who are perceived as different from themselves. They are also more likely to experience emotional conflict with people who differ with respect to race, age, and gender. Individuals who are different from their team members are more likely to report perceptions of unfairness and feel that their contributions are ignored. The similarity-attraction phenomenon may explain some of the potentially unfair treatment based on demographic traits. See 11.3 Diversity in the Workplace – Benefits and Challenges
A faultline is an attribute along which a group is split into subgroups. For example, in a group with three female and three male members, gender may act as a faultline because the female members may see themselves as separate from the male members. See 11.3 Diversity in the Workplace – Benefits and Challenges
All communication is intercultural. Always approach intercultural communication as an opportunity to overcome cultural differences and achieve the cross-cultural understanding you need to be a better person and do your job effectively in a multicultural environment. Communication requires an open attitude to understanding and accommodating cultural differences in the workplace to make business connections. See 11.4 Culture
If you’re ethnocentric in the sense of being fearful, intolerant, or even just avoidant towards those other cultures—be they on the other side of the planet, country, province, city, building, counter, or desk—you limit your opportunities for success in the globalized market. Even engaging other cultures with simplistic, preconceived notions informed by media stereotypes reducing everyone in a culture to a one-dimensional character or prop will similarly lead you into serious error. See 11.4 Culture
People in individualistic cultures value individual freedom and personal independence as reflected in the stories they tell themselves. See 11.4 Culture
Collectivist cultures, such as many in Asia and South America, focus on the needs of the nation, community, family, or group of workers. Ownership and private property is one way to examine this difference. See 11.4 Culture
Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall (1990) state that monochronic time-oriented cultures consider one thing at a time, whereas polychronic time-oriented cultures schedule many things at one time, and time is considered in a more fluid sense. In monochronic time, interruptions are to be avoided, and everything has its own specific time. See 11.4 Culture
With business, family, and social life mixing more freely, polychronic time-oriented cultures tend to challenge the monochronic outsider. In Greece, Italy, Chile, and Saudi Arabia, for instance, business meetings may be scheduled at a certain time, but when they actually begin may be another story. See 11.4 Culture
If you work within a culture that has a short-term orientation, you may need to place greater emphasis on reciprocating greetings, gifts, and rewards. For example, if you send a thank-you note the morning after being treated to a business dinner, your host will appreciate your promptness. While there may be a respect for tradition, there is also an emphasis on personal representation and honour as reflections of identity and integrity. Short-term oriented cultures also value personal stability and consistency, contributing to an overall sense of predictability and familiarity. See 11.4 Culture
Long-term oriented cultures such as in Asia value delayed gratification, perseverance, thrift and frugality, and a social hierarchy based on age and status. A sense of shame for the family and community is also observed across generations. What an individual does reflects on the family and is carried by immediate and extended family members. See 11.4 Culture
Hofstede et al. (2010) describe the masculine-feminine dichotomy not in terms of whether men or women hold the power in a given culture, but rather the extent to which that culture values certain traits that may be considered masculine or feminine. Thus, the assertive pole has been called “masculine” and the modest, caring pole “feminine.” See 11.4 Culture
Hofstede et al. (2010) describe the masculine-feminine dichotomy not in terms of whether men or women hold the power in a given culture, but rather the extent to which that culture values certain traits that may be considered masculine or feminine. Thus, the modest, caring pole has been termed “feminine.” The women in feminine countries have the same modest, caring values as the men; in the masculine countries they are somewhat assertive and competitive, but not as much as the men, so that these countries show a gap between men’s values and women’s values. See 11.4 Culture
In North America, business correspondence is expected to be short and to the point. “What can I do for you?” is a common question when an employee receives a call from a stranger. It is an accepted way of asking the caller to skip or minimize pleasantries and get on with their business. In indirect cultures, such as in Latin America, business conversations may start with discussions of the weather, family, or topics other than the business at hand as the partners get a sense of each other long before the main topic is raised. Again, the skilled business communicator researches the new environment before entering it because an avoidable social faux pas, or error, can have a significant impact. See 11.4 Culture
Members of a materialistic culture place emphasis on external goods and services as a representation of self, power, and social rank. See 11.4 Culture
How comfortable are you with critiquing your boss’s decisions? If you are from a low-power distance culture, your answer might be “no problem.” In low-power distance cultures, according to Hofstede, people relate to one another more as equals and less as a reflection of dominant or subordinate roles, regardless of their actual formal roles as employee and manager, for example. See 11.4 Culture
In a high-power distance culture, you’d probably be much less likely to challenge the decision, to provide an alternative, or to give input to someone superior to you in the social hierarchy. When working with people from a high-power distance culture, you may need to take extra care to offer feedback and even wait to approach them on their terms because their cultural framework may discourage such a casual attitude to authority. See 11.4 Culture
Cultural competency can be defined as the ability to recognize and adapt to cultural differences and similarities. It involves (a) the cultivation of deep cultural self-awareness and understanding (i.e., how one’s own beliefs, values, perceptions, interpretations, judgments, and behaviors are influenced by one’s cultural community or communities) and (b) increased cultural other-understanding (i.e., comprehension of the different ways people from other cultural groups make sense of and respond to the presence of cultural differences. See 11.4 Culture
