1. Are all people who experience homelessness street-involved?

Our understanding of the “street” as a social space has been greatly influenced by the Chicago School of Sociology. Prevalent in the early 1900s, researchers at the University of Chicago like W. I. Thomas, Ernest Burgess, and Robert Park undertook a unique approach now commonly called urban ethnography. These researchers were interested in documenting the daily activities of people deemed to be transgressive in public spaces. They would watch and record what they saw occurring within groups such as people living in extreme poverty, those who were new immigrants, and/or those involved in gangs.

 

Among the most influential of the Chicago School researchers was Nels Anderson (1923), whose research on hobos provided early insight into how the street can become a shared space for people without secure housing. His work on hobos, people who would ride the railways in search of work, provides a rich and detailed description of what life was like for these individuals in the early 1900s. We can still see some similarities today, with modern tent encampments serving as a modern version of the hobo jungles. However, much has also changed in the time since Nels Anderson was writing. Before you continue through the material in this section, we encourage you to pause and reflect on the question of whether all people who experience homelessness are street-involved and what “the street” even means. You may write your responses in the space below.

 

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When we write about the street, we are referring to a shared urban landscape made up of marginal spaces that exist outside the mainstream and are guided by a set of social practices. For instance, we might think of a downtown core in a city as being part of a street landscape that has spaces such as emergency shelters, drop-in centres, food banks, and a community health centre. While these services are commonly located in busy areas of a city, they are not often visited by the general public. In this way, we can consider them to be part of the street that have their own cultures and social practices that occur within. As people within these spaces move between them and into other public places, like sidewalks and city parks, a street network develops.

 

The question of whether all people who experience homelessness are part of this street network (i.e. street-involved) requires that we return to the very first question posed within this book and reconsider what homelessness means. In the Introduction chapter we discussed the Canadian Definition of Homelessness as being a four-part typology in which people can be unsheltered, emergency sheltered, provisionally accommodated, or at-risk of homelessness (Gaetz et al., 2012). This definition is important to return to here because it helps us see that not everyone who experiences homelessness lives in public spaces, accesses emergency shelters, or is part of the urban street landscape. In the next two videos, Dr. Erin Dej and Dr. Bernie Pauly explain further.


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Dr. Erin Dej: Are all people who experience homelessness street-involved?

In this video, Dr. Erin Dej argues that not everyone who experiences homelessness is street-involved. She points to the Canadian definition of homelessness as a four-part typology that offers a broader understanding of homelessness, with people who are visibly unsheltered being the tip of the iceberg. Dr. Dej notes that while we need to ensure unsheltered individuals are supported and safe, we must also remember to attend to the full spectrum of experiences and focus on homelessness prevention. This video is 1:50 in length and has closed captions available in English.

Key Takeaways – Dr. Erin Dej: Are all people who experience homelessness street-involved? 

  1. Not everyone who experiences homelessness is street-involved.
  2. The Canadian definition of homelessness is a four-part typology that also includes people who are in emergency shelters, provisionally accommodated, and at risk of homelessness.
    • When we focus only on people who are street-involved or street-entrenched, we are only seeing the tip of the iceberg.
    • We need to support people who are living on the street and ensure they have the services and tools needed to be safe and transition into housing.
    • We also need to attend to the full spectrum of experiences, because if we only consider people sleeping outside we will miss opportunities for prevention.

 

Dr. Bernie Pauly: Are all people who experience homelessness street-involved?

In this video Dr. Bernadette [Bernie] Pauly explains that there is a diverse range of ways in which people experience homelessness, with some being more visible than others. She draws upon the Canadian definition of homelessness, which includes people who are unsheltered and visibly sleeping in public places like doorways, alleys, and parks, as well as people who may be in emergency shelters, provisional accommodations, or at-risk of homelessness. Dr. Pauly concludes by noting that media depictions are part of the issue. They commonly portray narrow stereotypes of homelessness as someone sleeping on a sidewalk, rather than showing more complex circumstances such as someone living in a shelter and going to work every day. This video is 2:41 in length and has closed captions available in English.

Key Takeaways – Dr. Bernie Pauly: Are all people who experience homelessness street-involved?

  1. There is a diverse range of ways in which people experience homelessness, with some being more visible than others.
    • Some people are visible by living in public spaces, such as in a doorway, alley, or public park. People may also live in their car, which is less visible but still considered unsheltered.
    • Some people live in emergency shelters and may cycle in and out of visible homelessness.
    • Those on the edge of homelessness, who might live in transitional places without permanent residency, and those at-risk of homelessness who are paying more than 30% of their income towards rent, are less visible on the streets.
  2. Part of the consideration about street-involvement is stereotypes, such as shown in the media, that depict homelessness as being only about people lying on a sidewalk or sleeping outside. They neglect other forms, such as people living in a shelter and going to work each day.

What do you think?

human head with light bulb as brain graphic

Consider the images of homelessness you have seen represented in the media. What comes to mind? Do you think these images show the diversity of people’s experiences of homelessness in Canada? If not, what is missing?


The street is commonly thought of as an urban space, meaning it is constituted by people located in cities. Homelessness looks very different outside of the city. When we ask ourselves whether all people who experience homelessness are street-involved, we have to consider the definition of homelessness and we also have to consider the geographic context. Many people experience homelessness in rural communities where the idea of the street is less applicable. Homelessness is often invisible in rural settings (MacDonald & Gaulin, 2020) as people may move between temporary accommodations and/or sleep in remote areas that are not well travelled. People living in urban areas are more likely to see individuals experiencing homelessness on a frequent basis, compared to those in rural and suburban areas (Doberstein & Smith, 2019a) which may result in rural homelessness being overlooked as a pressing social issue.

The research presents an alarming picture of rural homelessness. For instance, Pijl and Belanger (2021) conducted a study in a small Alberta prairie town and found that Indigenous participants were particularly likely to report couch-surfing, 88% of female participants had left their home at least once as the result of intimate partner violence, and over half reported having great difficulty paying the previous year’s housing costs. Homelessness exists in both urban and rural environments, but the experience is often different in each setting. Dr. Bill O’Grady has researched rural homelessness in Canada. In the next video he explains further the importance of context. 

 

Dr. Bill O’Grady: Are all people who experience homelessness street-involved?

In this video Dr. William [Bill] O’Grady argues that to understand whether people who experience homelessness are street-involved, it is helpful to consider the different types of homelessness that exist. He notes that we must think about people who are at-risk of homelessness, couch surfing, and staying in shelters or outside, to understand why some people are street-involved while others are not. Dr. O’Grady explains that when we talk about street-involvement often we are referring to urban homelessness, but that being street-involved looks very different in rural communities. He shares an analysis of the 2014 General Social Survey which found people in rural communities report higher levels of lifetime homelessness than those living in larger cities. Dr. O’Grady concludes that we must consider the types of homelessness and the context to understand street-involvement. This video is 3:57 in length and has closed captions available in English.

Key Takeaways – Dr. Bill O’Grady: Are all people who experience homelessness street-involved?

  1. To understand whether people who experience homelessness are street-involved, it is helpful to consider the different types of homelessness.
    • Some people are at risk of losing their housing with nowhere to go. These individuals are not generally street-involved but may be close to homelessness.
    • Individuals may be couch surfing, such as youth who are not paying rent and moving between family or friends. This is a form of homelessness where young people may or may not be street-involved.
    • Some individuals may be staying in shelters or sleeping outside and using service agencies. These individuals are often street-involved.
  2. Often when people talk about street-involvement they are referring to urban environments. Street-involvement in a small / rural community is very different than in a large city.
    • The 2014 General Social Survey included a question asking Canadian respondents whether they had ever experienced homelessness in their lifetime. Analysis showed people from small communities in rural areas were more likely to say they had experienced homelessness compared to those living in cities.
    • People experiencing homelessness in small communities, such as youth, may be street-involved but in a different way than if they lived in a city like Toronto.
    • Some people will leave a rural area and move to a larger city looking for employment and housing. If they are unable to find them, they may return to the rural area in a migratory pattern.

 

The move between rural and urban areas has been described as a constant push and pull by Pijl and Belanger (2021) who found that Indigenous participants within their study were hyper-mobile between the reserve and larger neighbouring towns. In the next video Dr. Rebecca Schiff (2021), co-editor of “Health and health care in northern Canada,” discusses the challenges of rural homelessness and how we need to think about supporting people where they are, so they do not have to engage in this migratory cycle. 

 

Dr. Rebecca Schiff: Homelessness in rural communities

In this video, Dr. Rebecca Schiff argues that rural homelessness is under-recognized in Canada and is a much more significant issue than many people realize. She explains that rates of homelessness are higher in rural communities and that they face additional challenges, such as high costs of energy, heating, and food in addition to housing. Dr. Schiff notes that we need to consider how policy and funding approaches are currently designed toward the bias of urban homelessness, and that it is critical we identify ways to support people’s diverse needs in rural communities, so they do not have to migrate back and forth between rural and urban centres. Dr. Schiff concludes by advocating for prevention and early intervention for youth in rural communities, so they do not experience recurrent episodes of homelessness throughout their lives. This video is 7:10 in length and has closed captions available in English.

Key Takeaways – Dr. Rebecca Schiff: Homelessness in rural communities 

  1. Rural homelessness is under-recognized in Canada. It is a much more significant issue than is being acknowledged.
    • Rates of homelessness are higher in rural communities than in cities. They may have smaller numbers, but the percentage of people within the location experiencing homelessness is higher.
    • There are additional challenges with rural homelessness, such as higher costs of energy, heating, and food, in addition to costs of housing.
  2. We need to consider how policy and funding approaches are currently designed towards the bias of urban homelessness.
    • A lot of people migrate from rural areas to larger cities because there are more resources there for finding housing and getting supports. However, they may return to the rural area, creating a churn of people.
    • In cities there are often an array of diverse services available to support the mass of people experiencing homelessness, but rural communities face difficulties in providing the same kind of specialized services. How to support people in rural areas is a complex puzzle.
  3. Youth homelessness is a challenge in rural areas, and prevention or early intervention are important, so they do not experience recurrent episodes of homelessness throughout their lives.

 

Research on rural homelessness has shown that the lack of privacy in small communities, limited support services, and a generally limited housing stock creates unique challenges for overcoming homelessness (Buck-McFadyen, 2021). There also may be less willingness to invest in supporting and expanding homelessness investments in rural areas compared to medium sized and large cities (Doberstein & Smith, 2019a). The unique challenges and lack of financial investments make rural homelessness a distinct experience from urban street-involved homelessness. We saw these clear challenges arise in rural areas during the COVID-19 pandemic. In this section’s featured reading Dr. Rebecca Schiff and her team (2020) explore the impact of COVID-19 on people experiencing homelessness in rural and remote communities. 


Featured Reading:

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Schiff, R., Buccieri, K., Waegemakers Schiff, J., Kauppi, C., & Riva, M. (2020). COVID-19 and pandemic planning in the context of rural and remote homelessness. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 111, 967-970. 

 


When we consider the question of whether all people who experience homelessness are street-involved, it is important that we recognize the different types of homelessness and locations in which it occurs. Sometimes, as we have seen, people in rural communities will migrate into urban settings for services and opportunities that are not available where they live. They may then also return back to the rural community again. People who experience homelessness are often mobile and their departures may at times seem abrupt, as though they were a missing person (Huey & Ferguson, 2020). The idea of mobility being associated with homelessness traces back a long time, even before the hobos riding the rails that Nels Anderson wrote about in 1923. People who experience homelessness may move between regions for a diverse number of reasons, including for interpersonal opportunities, seeking health care and social services, and for personal security (Kaufman et al., 2020a). In the next video, Dr. Jacqueline Kennelly explains how these moves lead to fluid experiences of street-involvement. 

 

Dr. Jacqueline Kennelly: Are all people who experience homelessness street-involved?

In this video, Dr. Jacqueline Kennelly argues that not every person who experiences homelessness is street-involved and that even those who are, tend to move in and out of street-involvement fluidly. She notes that men are more likely to be visible on the streets, whether panhandling or sleeping outside, while women, girls, and families often remain more hidden. This video is 1:22 in length and has closed captions available in English.

Key Takeaways – Dr. Jacqueline Kennelly: Are all people who experience homelessness street-involved?

  1. Not every person who experiences homelessness is street-involved, and even those who are, may move in and out of street-involvement. It is a fluid category.
  2. Men tend to be the most visible on the streets, whether panhandling or sleeping outside.
  3. Women and girls tend to be more hidden, as do families which is a growing category of people experiencing homelessness.

 

In urban settings, street involvement is often organized around access to services and economic activities. People find creative and intentional strategies for navigating street life, including recognizing opportunities, mobilizing their resources, using social connections and skills, and engaging in entrepreneurial processes (Isaak, Reynolds, Sareen, & Distasio, 2019). Within the context of urban settings, people who are street-involved may use informal money–making strategies like panhandling or squeegeeing car windshields in exchange for payment. These income strategies are more likely to be used in large cities, like Vancouver and Toronto, where daily encounters with people experiencing homelessness are much more common than in rural and suburban settings (Doberstein & Smith, 2019a). In the next video, Dr. Jeff Karabanow discusses rural homelessness, urban street involvement, and the youth cultures that can develop on the street. 

 

Dr. Jeff Karabanow: Are all people who experience homelessness street-involved?

In this video, Dr. Jeff Karabanow explains that street involvement denotes engagement with activities such as panhandling, squeegeeing, and living rough. He notes that a core response to youth homelessness has been to create youth shelters that are distinct from adult-serving ones, but that many young people still remain connected to the street, where they must navigate day-to-day encounters with others. Dr. Karabanow explains that in rural communities there is less street-involvement, as couch surfing and hidden homelessness are more common. He concludes that in recent years a shift towards prevention has occurred in which the emphasis is on keeping people off the streets and out of homelessness. This video is 3:14 in length and has closed captions available in English.

Key Takeaways – Dr. Jeff Karabanow: Are all people who experience homelessness street-involved?

  1. Street involvement denotes engagement with activities such as panhandling, squeegeeing, living rough, and sleeping outdoors in alleys, tents, or encampments.
  2. A core response to youth homelessness has been the separation of adult and youth shelters. Many young people in the youth shelters are connected to street activities, which are often about survival.
  3. People who are involved with street activities have to navigate and negotiate their day-to-day lives with others on the street, as well as people they come into contact with such as police, health care providers, and social workers.
  4. In rural communities, we see a lot of couch surfing and precarious living situations. These individuals are generally not engaged with the street world. They may move around and have stability for a few days.
  5. The emphasis now has shifted from only getting people off the streets, to trying to get them into safe spaces where they do not have to enter the streets to begin with.

 

Just as people who experience homelessness may move between geographic locations, they also often have to move around throughout the day as emergency shelters and social services open and close. This kind of movement creates a social geography of the street. One of the authors of this book has conducted research on the social and spatial dimensions of homelessness using time geography mapping to see how young people without secure housing move through the street over a 24–hour period. While it may seem to the general public that people who experience homelessness are sitting on the sidewalk, in the park, or outside of an agency with nowhere to go, this mapping activity actually demonstrates their movements are rather controlled. They must attune their actions to the service agencies they depend upon.


What do you think?

human head with light bulb as brain graphicConsider how you spent the past 24–hours and create a mental map of where you went, the times, and the modes of transportation you used. How do you think this activity might look for a young person who is couch–surfing in the suburbs while using services in the downtown core of Toronto? How might this activity look for a person couch–surfing in a rural community?


We encourage you to keep these questions in mind as you watch this brief video created by the Public Visualization Studio. This video was created based on the 24–hour map of “Anna” a real woman (although not her real name) who was experiencing homelessness in Toronto. They created a visual representation of this research as part of the “In the Air Tonight” month-long interactive architecture installation by projecting it on the side of a building in downtown Toronto on a continuous loop. There is no sound in the video, so we invite you to use the quiet time to reflect on how being street-involved requires spatial work and coordination.

 

 

 

Some people experience homelessness in a way that brings them into the street environment, such as accessing shelters and social services. Dr. Tyler Frederick (2019) has conducted interviews with 39 young people to learn about their experiences within these environments and the cultures that develop within the spaces. His research shows that by spending time on the street, young people develop strategies for navigating the rules, opportunities, and social politics of the different spaces they access, while still struggling to meet their basic needs. In the next video, Dr. Frederick speaks about the different ways the street is conceptualized and the social world that develops around it. 

 

Dr. Tyler Frederick: Are all people who experience homelessness street-involved?

In this video, Dr. Tyler Frederick explains that the term street-involved is sometimes used broadly to refer to people experiencing homelessness, but that it is important to remember not everyone who experiences homelessness is involved in street-based activities. He clarifies that more narrowly, street-involvement refers to people who are sleeping rough, living in an encampment or their car, and are involved in a wider social network of other street-involved individuals. Dr. Frederick notes that shelters and drop-in services are often surrounded by a social world where people form relationships, whether positive or risky, that may continue after they are housed. This video is 3:00 in length and has closed captions available in English.

Key Takeaways – Dr. Tyler Frederick: Are all people who experience homelessness street-involved?

  1. The term street-involved is sometimes used broadly to refer to people who are experiencing, or have experienced, homelessness.
    • However, it is useful to think about how not all people who experience homelessness are street-involved.
    • There are a lot of people who experience hidden homelessness and never come into contact with emergency shelters or drop-in centres. These individuals experience homelessness but are not street-involved.
  2. More narrowly, street-involvement refers to people who are sleeping rough, living in an encampment or their car, and are part of a wider social network of street-involved individuals.
    • The street includes a social world that surrounds shelters and drop-in centres, where people can congregate and form relationships (both positive and negative) with other people.
    • Even as people move into housing, they may retain some connections to their social networks from the street environment.

 

People commonly equate homelessness with living on the street, but the two are not necessarily synonymous. We began this section by tracing research about homelessness in Sociology to the Chicago School and Nels Anderson’s work on hobos in the 1920s. This is important to note because it set the stage for the urban ethnography style of research that followed, in which people were observed living their lives in public spaces. This tradition has continued to the modern day but has also been expanded to allow for broader understandings of homelessness.

 

We heard from researchers that the Canadian definition of homelessness is important because it provides a conceptualization of homelessness as being a continuum rather than an ‘either / or’ occurrence (Gaetz et al., 2012). We noted that some people, such as those who are unsheltered or emergency sheltered, might be more visible and likely to engage in street culture to meet their needs. Those in rural settings are more removed from the street, as these communities generally lack the centralized infrastructure to create a hub of services. People in these communities may migrate in a cyclical form back and forth between rural and urban settings, in an attempt to improve their economic, housing, and/or social situations.

 

Just as people move between rural and urban settings, so too do people move on and off the street based on their personal circumstances. We heard that it is not uncommon for people to move fluidly through the street, as they experience different forms of homelessness, and that they may move in and out of services throughout the day. This movement creates a geography of the street that shows how constraining street-involvement can actually be. We concluded this section by discussing some of the economic activities, like panhandling and squeegeeing, that are more common in urban than rural environments and the street cultures that are produced by the people who engage in them.

 

Podcast: Are all people who experience homelessness street involved? (24:22)

Click the link below to listen to all of the researchers answer the question “Are all people who experience homelessness street involved?” in audio format on our podcast!

 


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Understanding Homelessness in Canada Copyright © 2022 by Kristy Buccieri, James Davy, Cyndi Gilmer, and Nicole Whitmore is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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