Writing the Introductory Paragraph

Confederation College

17 Writing the Introductory Paragraph

The introductory and concluding paragraphs are like the top and bottom buns of a hamburger. They contain basically the same information and are critical for holding the entire piece together.

Learning Objectives

After completing the exercises in this chapter, you will be able to

identify the three main components of an introductory paragraph
understand how to “hook” your reader
identify what background information needs to be included to lead to your thesis

Essay Structure

You learned in the previous chapter that a body paragraph is structured like a hamburger. You can think of your essay as one big burger!

The top bun is the introduction.

The meat and vegetables in the middle are the supporting body paragraphs (several mini-burgers).

The bottom bun is the conclusion.

^{“Burger” by wildgica under license CC BY-NC-ND 3.0.}

The top and bottom bun are both made of bread; they contain the same ingredients (or information) but look a little bit different. The “meat” of your argument is in the supporting body paragraphs.

Structure of the Introductory Paragraph

Your introductory paragraph has three main parts:

hook
background information
thesis

Hook

Start your introductory paragraph with an interesting comment or question that will get your reader interested in your topic.

Examples:

a famous or interesting quotation
an
a startling fact or shocking statistic
a statement of contrast
a prediction
a
the definition of a critical concept

The hook is the very first thing your audience encounters. A good hook should be just one or two sentences. The goal of your hook is to introduce your reader to your broad topic in an interesting way and make your reader excited to read more.

Even though your hook is at the very beginning of your essay, you should actually write your hook LAST! It will be much easier for you to write an engaging introduction to your topic after you’ve done all of your research and after you’ve written your body paragraphs and conclusion.

Watch this video for tips on how to write a captivating and relevant hook^[1]:

In part two of this video series, Mister Messinger gives some additional tips about writing hooks, explains some common mistakes that beginning writers make, and warns against using rhetorical questions: rhetorical questions, while fairly easy to write, are often poorly done and not engaging.

Background

Your introductory paragraph should also include some background information. Don’t preview the ideas that you’ll introduce in your thesis – this is not the place to introduce your supporting points. Instead of giving your argument, explain the critical facts about your topic that an average reader needs to know in order to be prepared for your argument.

Examples of background information related to the broad topic that readers might need to know:

brief historical timeline of critical events
laws or regulations
definitions
current status

The information that you need to provide depends heavily on your topic:

If you are arguing in favour of changing drinking and driving laws, your background information might explain what the current laws are.
If you are arguing that stem cell research should be more heavily supported by the government, you should explain what the current status of stem cell research is.
If you are arguing that culture is learned and not inherited, you might start by defining what “culture” is.

Remember that you are writing for a general audience. Don’t assume that your reader has specialized knowledge of your topic.

Remember that you are writing for a general audience, so you shouldn’t assume that your readers have any specific knowledge of your topic or that they know any specialized terminology. The background information that you provide should give your readers the information they need to understand the argument in your thesis. Be sure, though, that you don’t *preview* the thesis. Do not include your argument or any information related to your body paragraphs as background information.

Watch this video for more information about how to include relevant background information^[2]:

Thesis

As you know, the thesis is the most important sentence in your essay. It is placed last in the introductory paragraph. The hook and the background information should lead gracefully to the thesis. The thesis concisely states the answer to your research question by stating the specific topic, implying your stance on the topic, and listing the topics of the supporting body paragraphs.

Learning Check

Consider this short introductory paragraph and answer the questions that follow:

Fossil fuels and renewable energy sources will not be enough to power the world through this century. Fossil fuels, those which are extracted from the ground through an environmentally damaging process called “fracking”, and renewable sources, like wind and solar, are extremely limited. Fossil fuel energy is finite – we can only use what we can extract, and it is a limited resource – and renewables are unreliable because they are energy dependent. In order to accommodate the rising population and standard of living, the world needs a reliable and scalable energy source. While many people tout the benefits of renewable sources like solar and wind, ultimately these are unreliable and require a very large amount of land. Nuclear power, however, is a safe, reliable, and relatively clean source of energy.

Sample Introductory Paragraph

Let’s look at this introductory paragraph that was created by a student for her essay on why the City of Thunder Bay should change its existing laws to allow residents to raise chickens.

The writer’s hook is in blue text. The writer is trying to engage the reader on the topic by providing a surprising contrast. What other hooks could the writer have used instead?

The background information is in orange text. The writer realized that her readers wouldn’t be able to understand her point of view if they didn’t know that the law currently forbids city residents from raising chickens on their property. Is this enough background information for you to understand the thesis? What additional information could the writer have provided?

The thesis is in purple text. The thesis statement is well-written and clearly states all necessary information:

The specific topic (the ‘chicken bylaw’ in Thunder Bay)
The writer’s stance (the bylaw should be changed to allow raising chickens within city limits)
The reasons for the writer’s stance (the underlined clauses in the thesis)

When the writer drafts her body paragraphs, she needs to make sure that each underlined idea is the topic of a paragraph and that those paragraphs are organized in the same order as the ideas are presented in the thesis.

Mister Messinger. (2020, July 7). Part 1: Discover how to start essay with an A+ hook: STRONG attention grabbing examples [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yvrnVHd-oyM ↵
Mister Messinger. (2020, August 6). How to start an essay: Add background information to write a strong introduction [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-bd1t2u-HbE&t=223s ↵

Learning Objective

Define culture, describe five noteworthy cultural characteristics, and compare and contrast five key dimensions of culture, including high and low context.

Understanding Culture

Every country or region within a country has its own common heritage, joint experience or shared learning. This shared background produces the culture of a region, country, or society. For our purposes, culture may be defined as the complex system of values, traits, morals, and customs shared by a society. Culture teaches people how to behave and conditions their reactions. It is a powerful operating force that conditions the way we think and behave. The purpose of this chapter is to broaden your view of culture and help you develop a flexible attitude so that you can avoid frustration when cultural adjustment is necessary.

Characteristics of Culture

Culture is shaped by attitudes learned in childhood and later internalized in adulthood. As we enter this current period of globalization and interculturalism, we should expect to make adjustments and adopt new attitudes. Adjustment and accommodation will be easier if we understand some basic characteristics of culture.

Understanding basic characteristics of culture helps us make adjustments and accommodations.

Culture Is Learned. The rules, values, and attitudes of a culture are not inherent. They are learned and passed down from generation to generation. For example, in many Middle Eastern and some Asian cultures, same-sex people may walk hand in hand in the street, but opposite-sex people may not do so. In Arab cultures conversations are often held in close proximity, sometimes nose to nose. But in Western cultures, if a person stands too close, the other may feel uncomfortable. Cultural rules of behaviour learned from your family and society are conditioned from early childhood.

Cultures are Inherently Logical. The rules in any culture originated to reinforce that culture’s values and beliefs. They act as normative forces. Rules about how close to stand may be linked to values about sexuality, aggression, modesty, and respect. Acknowledging the inherent logic of a culture is extremely important when learning to accept behaviour that differs from our own cultural behaviour.

Culture Is the Basis of Self-Identity and Community. Culture is the basis for how we tell the world who we are and what we believe. People build their identities through cultural overlays to their primary culture. When North Americans make choices in education, career, place of employment, and life partner, they consider certain rules, manners, ceremonies, beliefs, language, and values. These considerations add to their total cultural outlook, and they represent major expressions of a person’s self-identity.

Culture determines our sense of who we are and our sense of community.

Culture Combines the Visible and Invisible. To outsiders, the way we act—those things that we do in daily life and work—are the most visible parts of our culture. In India, for example, people avoid stepping on ants or other insects because they believe in reincarnation and are careful about all forms of life. Such practices are outward symbols of deeper values that are invisible but that pervade everything we think and do.

Culture Is Dynamic. Over time, cultures will change. Changes are caused by advancements in technology and communication, as discussed earlier. Local differences are modified or slowly erased. Change is also caused by such events as migration, natural disasters, and conflicts. One major event in this country was the exodus of people living on farms. When families moved to cities, major changes occurred in the way family members interacted. Attitudes, behaviours, and beliefs change in open societies more quickly than in closed societies.

Dimensions of Culture. The more you know about culture in general and your own culture in particular, the better able you will be to adapt to an intercultural perspective. A typical North American has habits and beliefs similar to those of other members of Western, technologically advanced societies. In our limited space in this book, it is impossible to cover fully the infinite facets of culture. But we can outline some key dimensions of culture and look at them from different views.

So that you will better understand your culture and how it contrasts with other cul- tures, we will describe five key dimensions of culture: context, individualism, formality, communication style, and time orientation.

Context. Context is probably the most important cultural dimension and also the most difficult to define. It is a concept developed by cultural anthropologist Edward T. Hall. In his model, context refers to the stimuli, environment, or ambience surrounding an event. Communicators in low-context cultures (such as those in North America, Scandinavia, and Germany) depend little on the context of a situation to convey their meaning. They assume that listeners know very little and must be told practically every- thing. In high-context cultures (such as those in Japan, China, and Arab countries), the listener is already “contexted” and does not need to be given much background information.6 To identify low- and high-context countries, Hall arranged them on a continuum, as shown in Figure 3.1.

Low-context cultures tend to be logical, analytical, and action oriented. Business communicators stress clearly articulated messages that they consider to be objective, professional, and efficient. High-context cultures are more likely to be intuitive and contemplative. Communicators in high-context cultures pay attention to more than the words spoken. They emphasize interpersonal relationships, nonverbal expression, physical setting, and social setting. In high-context cultures, communication cues are transmitted by posture, voice inflection, gestures, and facial expression. Establishing relationships is an important part of communicating and interacting.

In terms of thinking patterns, low-context communicators tend to use linear logic. They proceed from point A to point B to point C and finally arrive at a conclusion. High-context communicators, however, may use spiral logic, circling around a topic indirectly and looking at it from many tangential or divergent viewpoints. A conclusion may be implied but not argued directly. For a concise summary of important differences between low- and high-context cultures, see Figure 3.1.

FIGURE 3.1 Comparing Low- and High-Context Cultures

Low Context	High Context
Tend to prefer direct verbal interaction	Tend to prefer indirect verbal interaction
Tend to understand meaning at one level only	Tend to understand meanings embedded at many sociocultural levels
Are generally less proficient in reading nonverbal cues	Are generally more proficient in reading nonverbal cues
Value individualism	Value group membership
Rely more on logic	Rely more on context and feeling
Employ linear logic	Employ spiral logic
Say 'no' directly	Talk around point; avoid saying no
Communication in highly structured messages, provide details, stress literal meaning	Communication is simple, sometimes ambiguous, messages; understand visual messages readily

Individualism. An attitude of independence and freedom from control character- izes individualism. Members of low-context cultures, particularly North Americans, tend to value individualism. They believe that initiative and self-assertion result in personal achievement. They believe in individual action and personal responsibility, and they desire a large degree of freedom in their personal lives.
Members of high-context cultures are more collectivist. They emphasize member- ship in organizations, groups, and teams; they encourage acceptance of group values, duties, and decisions. They typically resist independence because it fosters competition and confrontation instead of consensus.
Many cultures, of course, are quite complex and cannot be characterized as totally individualistic or group oriented. For example, Canadians of European descent are gen- erally quite individualistic, while those with Asian backgrounds may be closer to the group-centred dimension.7
Formality. People in some cultures place less emphasis on tradition, ceremony, and social rules than do members of other cultures. North Americans, for example, dress casually and are soon on a first-name basis with others. Their lack of formality is often characterized by directness. In business dealings North Americans come to the point immediately; indirectness, they feel, wastes time, a valuable commodity in North American culture.
This informality and directness may be confusing abroad. In Japan, for example, signing documents and exchanging business cards are important rituals. In Europe first names are never used without invitation. In Arab, South American, and Asian cultures, a feeling of friendship and kinship must be established before business can be transacted.
In Western cultures people are more relaxed about social status and the appearance of power.8 Deference is not generally paid to individuals merely because of their wealth, position, seniority, or age. In many Asian cultures, however, these characteristics are important and must be respected.
Communication Style. People in low- and high-context cultures tend to com- municate differently with words. To North Americans and Germans, words are very important, especially in contracts and negotiations. People in high-context cultures, conversely, place more emphasis on the surrounding context than on the words describing a negotiation. A Greek may see a contract as a formal statement announcing the intention to build a business for the future. The Japanese may treat contracts as statements of intention, and they assume changes will be made as a project develops.9
North Americans tend to take words literally, whereas Arabs and South Americans sometimes speak with extravagant or poetic figures of speech that may be misinter- preted if taken literally.10
In communication style North Americans value straightforwardness, are suspicious of evasiveness, and distrust people who might have a “hidden agenda” or who “play their cards too close to the chest.”11 North Americans also tend to be uncomfortable with silence and impatient with delays. Some Asian businesspeople have learned that the longer they drag out negotiations, the more concessions impatient North Americans are likely to make.
Western cultures have developed languages that use letters describing the sounds of words. But Asian languages are based on pictographic characters representing the meanings of words. Asian language characters are much more complex than the Western alphabet; therefore, Asians are said to have a higher competence in the discrimination of visual patterns.
time Orientation. North Americans consider time a precious commodity to be conserved. They correlate time with productivity, efficiency, and money. Keeping people waiting for business appointments wastes time and is also rude.

In other cultures time may be perceived as an unlimited and never-ending resource to be enjoyed. Basic concepts of time can make international mergers more difficult. Long term in Canada means three years; in Japan long term is 30 years.12

As you can see, high-context cultures differ from low-context cultures in many dimensions. These differences can be significant for companies engaging in inter- national business.

Stereotypes, prototypes, prejudices, and Generalizations

Most experts recognize that it is impossible to talk about cultures without using mental categories, representations, and generalizations to describe groups. These categories are sometimes considered stereotypes. Because the term stereotype has a negative meaning, intercultural authors Iris Varner and Linda Beamer suggested that we distinguish between stereotype and prototype.

A stereotype is an oversimplified behavioural pattern applied uncritically to groups. The term was used originally by printers to describe identical type set in two frames, hence stereotype. Stereotypes are fixed and rigid. Although they may be exaggerated and overgeneralized beliefs when applied to groups of people, stereotypes are not always entirely false.13 Often they contain a grain of truth. When a stereotype develops into a rigid attitude and when it is based on erroneous beliefs or preconceptions, then it should be called a prejudice.

Varner and Beamer recommended using the term prototype to describe “mental rep- resentations based on general characteristics that are not fixed and rigid but rather are open to new definitions.”14 Prototypes, then, are dynamic and change with fresh experi- ence. Prototypes based on objective observations usually have a considerable amount of truth in them. That is why they can be helpful in studying culture. For example, South American businesspeople often talk about their families before getting down to busi- ness. This prototype is generally accurate, but it may not universally apply and it may change over time.

Some people object to making any generalizations about cultures. It is wise to remember, however, that whenever we are confronted with something new and unfamiliar, we naturally strive to categorize the data to make sense out of it. In categor- izing these new data, we are making generalizations. Significant intellectual discourse is impossible without generalizations. Unfounded generalizations about people and cultures, of course, can lead to bias and prejudice. But for our purposes, when we dis- cuss cultures, it is important to be able to make generalizations and describe cultural prototypes.

the Benefits of Intercultural proficiency

Being aware of your own culture and how it contrasts with others is an important first step in achieving intercultural proficiency. Another step involves recognizing barriers to intercultural accommodation and striving to overcome them. Some of these barriers occur quite naturally and require a conscious effort to surmount. Probably the most important reasons for becoming interculturally competent are that your personal life will be more satisfying and your work life will be more productive, gratifying, and effective.

avoiding ethnocentrism

A person’s belief in the superiority of his or her own culture or ethnic group is known as ethnocentrism, a natural attitude inherent in all cultures. If you were raised in North America, many of the dimensions of culture described previously probably seem “right” to you.

Ethnocentrism causes us to judge others by our own values. We expect others to react as we would, and they expect us to behave as they would. Misunderstandings naturally result. A North American who wants to set a deadline for completion of nego- tiations is considered pushy by an Arab. That same Arab, who prefers a handshake to

a written contract, is seen as naive and possibly untrustworthy by a North American. These ethnocentric reactions can be reduced through knowledge of other cultures and the development of increased intercultural sensitivity.
Bridging the Gap
Developing cultural competence often involves changing attitudes. Remember that culture is learned. Through exposure to other cultures and through training, such as you are receiving in this course, you can learn new attitudes and behaviours that help bridge gaps between cultures.
tolerance. One desirable attitude in achieving intercultural proficiency is tolerance. Closed-minded people cannot look beyond their own ethnocentrism. But as global markets expand and as our own society becomes increasingly multiethnic, tolerance becomes especially significant. Some job descriptions now include such statements as Must be able to interact with ethnically diverse personnel.
To improve tolerance, you will want to practise empathy. This means trying to see the world through another’s eyes. It means being less judgmental and more eager to seek common ground.
Accepting cultural differences and adapting to them with tolerance and empathy often results in a harmonious compromise.
Saving Face. In business transactions North Americans often assume that economic factors are the primary motivators of people. It is wise to remember, though, that strong cultural influences are also at work. Saving face, for example, is important in many parts of the world. Face refers to the image a person holds in his or her social network. Positive comments raise a person’s social standing, but negative comments lower it.
People in low-context cultures are less concerned with face. High-context cultures, on the other hand, are more concerned with preserving social harmony and saving face. They are indirect and go to great lengths to avoid giving offence by saying no. The empathic listener recognizes the language of refusal and pushes no further.
patience. Being tolerant also involves patience. If a foreigner is struggling to express an idea in English, North Americans must avoid the temptation to finish the sentence and provide the word that they presume is wanted. When we put words into their mouths, our foreign friends often smile and agree out of politeness, but our words may in fact not express their thoughts. Remaining silent is another means of exhibiting tolerance. Instead of filling every lapse in conversation, North Americans, for example, should recognize that in Asian cultures people deliberately use periods of silence for reflection and contemplation.
effective Communication in Intercultural Settings
Thus far we have discussed the increasing importance of intercultural proficiency as a result of globalization of markets, increasing migration, and technological advancements. We have described characteristics and dimensions of cultures, and we have talked about avoiding ethnocentrism. Our goal was to motivate you to unlock the opportunities offered by intercultural proficiency. Remember, the key to future business success may very well lie in finding ways to work harmoniously with people from different cultures.
Successful Nonverbal Communication in Intercultural environments Verbal skills in another culture can generally be mastered if a person studies hard enough. But nonverbal skills are much more difficult to learn. Nonverbal behaviour includes the areas described in Chapter 2, such as eye contact, facial expression, posture, gestures, and the use of time, space, and territory. The messages sent by body language

and the way we arrange time and space have always been open to interpretation. Does a raised eyebrow mean that your boss doubts your statement or just that she is seriously considering it? Does that closed door to an office mean that your co-worker is angry or just that he is working on a project that requires concentration? Deciphering nonverbal communication is difficult for people who are culturally similar, and it is even more troublesome when cultures differ.

In Western cultures, for example, people perceive silence as a negative trait. Silence suggests rejection, unhappiness, depression, regret, embarrassment, or ignorance. However, the Japanese admire silence and consider it a key to success.

Although nonverbal behaviour is ambiguous within cultures and even more prob- lematic between cultures, it nevertheless conveys meaning. If you’ve ever had to talk with someone who does not share your language, you probably learned quickly to use gestures to convey basic messages. Because gestures can create very different reactions in different cultures, we must be careful in using and interpreting them.

As businesspeople increasingly interact with their counterparts from other cultures, they will become more aware of these differences. Some behaviours are easy to warn against, such as touching people from the Middle East with the left hand (because it is considered unclean and is used for personal hygiene). We are also warned not to touch anyone’s head (even children) in Thailand, as the head is considered sacred. Numerous lists of cultural dos and don’ts have been compiled. However, learning all the nuances of nonverbal behaviour in other cultures is impossible; such lists are merely the tip of the cultural iceberg.

Although we cannot ever hope to understand fully the nuances of meaning trans- mitted by nonverbal behaviour in various cultures, we can grow more tolerant, more flexible, and, eventually, more competent. An important part of achieving nonverbal competence is becoming more aware of our own nonverbal behaviours and their mean- ings. Much of our nonverbal behaviour is learned in early childhood from our families and from society, and it is largely unconscious. Once we become more aware of the meaning of our own gestures, posture, eye contact, and so on, we will become more alert and more sensitive to variations in other cultures. Striving to associate with people from different cultures can further broaden our intercultural competence.

techniques for achieving Intercultural Competence

In improving effectiveness and achieving intercultural competence, one expert, M. R. Hammer, suggested that three processes or attitudes are effective. Descriptiveness refers to the use of concrete and specific feedback. As you learned in Chapter 1, descriptive feedback is more effective than judgmental feedback. A second attitude is what Hammer called nonjudgmentalism. This attitude goes a long way in preventing defensive reac- tions from communicators. Most important in achieving effective communication is supportiveness. This attitude requires us to support others positively with head nods, eye contact, facial expression, and physical proximity.15

From a practical standpoint, when interacting with businesspeople in other cul- tures, it is always wise to follow their lead. If they avoid intense eye contact, don’t stare. If no one is putting his or her elbows on a table, don’t be the first to do so. Until you are knowledgeable about the meaning of gestures, it is probably a good idea to keep yours to a minimum. Learning the words for please, yes, and thank you is even better than relying on gestures.16 Intercultural competence regarding nonverbal behaviour may never be completely attained, but sensitivity, nonjudgmentalism, and tolerance go a long way toward improving interactions.

Successful Oral Communication in Intercultural environments Although it is best to speak a foreign language fluently, many of us lack that skill. Fortunately, global business transactions are increasingly conducted in English. English has become the language of technology, the language of Hollywood, and the language to know in global business even for traditionally non-English-speaking countries. English is so dominant in business that when Koreans go to China, English is the language

hose for whom English is a second language. North Americans abroad make a big mistake in thinking that people who speak English always understand what is being said. Comprehension can be fairly superficial. The following suggestions are helpful for situations in which one or both communicators is using English as a second language.

● Learn foreign phrases. In conversations, even when English is used, foreign nationals appreciate it when you learn greetings and a few phrases in their language. Practise the phrases phonetically so that you will be understood.

● Use simple English. Speak in short sentences (fewer than 20 words) with familiar short words. For example, use old rather than obsolete and rich rather than luxurious or sumptuous. Eliminate puns, sports and military references, slang, and jargon (special business terms). Be especially alert to idiomatic expressions that can’t be translated, such as burn the midnight oil and under the weather.

● Speak slowly and enunciate clearly. Avoid fast speech, but don’t raise your voice. Overpunctuate with pauses and full stops. Always write numbers for all to see.

● Observe eye messages. Be alert to a glazed expression or wandering eyes—these tell you the listener is lost.

● Encourage accurate feedback. Ask probing questions and encourage the listener to paraphrase what you say. Do not assume that a yes, a nod, or a smile indicates comprehension.

● Check frequently for comprehension. Avoid waiting until you finish a long explanation to request feedback. Instead, make one point at a time, pausing to check for comprehension. Do not proceed to B until A has been grasped.

● Accept blame. If a misunderstanding results, graciously accept the blame for not making your meaning clear.

● Listen without interrupting. Curb your desire to finish sentences or to fill out ideas for the speaker. Keep in mind that North Americans abroad are often accused of listening too little and talking too much.

● Smile when appropriate. Roger Axtell, international behaviour expert, calls the smile the single most understood and most useful form of communication in either personal or business transactions.18 In some cultures, however, excessive smiling may seem insincere.19

● Follow up in writing. After conversations or oral negotiations, confirm the results and agreements with follow-up letters. For proposals and contracts, engage a translator to prepare copies in the local language.

effective Written Messages to Intercultural audiences

In sending letters and other documents to businesspeople in other cultures, try to adapt your writing style and tone appropriately. For example, in cultures where formality and tradition are important, be scrupulously polite. Don’t even think of sharing the latest joke. Humour translates very poorly and can cause misunderstanding and negative reactions. Familiarize yourself with accepted channels of communication. Are letters, e-mail, and faxes common? Would a direct or an indirect organizational pattern be more effective? Forget about trying to cut through red tape. In some cultures red tape is appreciated. The following suggestions, coupled with the earlier guidelines, can help you prepare successful written messages for intercultural audiences.

Don’t assume that speakers of English as a second language understand everything you say.

Use simple English and avoid puns, sports references, slang, and jargon when communicating with people for whom English is a second language.

To improve communication with those for whom English is a second language, speak slowly, enunciate clearly, observe eye messages, encourage feedback, check for comprehension, accept blame, don’t interrupt, remember to smile, and follow up important conversations in writing.

Consider local styles. Learn how documents are formatted and addressed in the intended reader’s country. Decide whether to use your organization’s preferred format or to adjust to local styles.
Observe titles and rank. Use last names, titles, and other signals of rank and status. Send messages to higher-status people and avoid sending copies to lower-rank people.

Use short sentences and short paragraphs. Sentences with fewer than 20 words and paragraphs with fewer than eight lines are most readable.
Avoid ambiguous expressions. Include relative pronouns (that, which, who) for clarity in introducing clauses. Stay away from contractions (especially ones like Here’s the problem). Avoid idioms and figurative clichés (once in a blue moon), slang (my presentation really bombed), acronyms (ASAP, for as soon as possible), abbreviations (DBA, for doing business as), jargon (input, bottom line), and
sports references (play ball, slam dunk, ballpark figure). Use action-specific verbs (purchase a printer rather than get a printer).
Strive for clarity. Avoid words that have many meanings (the word light has 18 different meanings!). If necessary, clarify words that may be confusing. Replace two-word verbs with clear single words (return instead of bring back; delay instead of put off; maintain instead of keep up).
Use correct grammar. Be careful of misplaced modifiers, dangling participles, and sentence fragments. Use conventional punctuation.
Cite numbers carefully. For international trade it is a good idea to use the metric system. In citing numbers use numerals (15) instead of words (fifteen). Always convert dollar amounts into local currency. Avoid using numerals to express the month of the year. In North America, for example, March 5, 2013, might be written as 3/5/13, whereas in Europe the same date might appear as 5.3.13.
Accommodate the reader in organization, tone, and style. Organize your message to appeal to the reader. For example, use the indirect strategy for high-context audiences.
The Checklist box summarizes suggestions for improving communication with intercultural audiences.

Checklist

Improving Intercultural Proficiency and Communication

Study your own culture. Learn about your customs, biases, and views and how they differ from those in other societies. This knowledge can help you better understand, appreciate,
• and accept the values and behaviour of other cultures.
Learn about other cultures. Education can help you alter cultural misconceptions, reduce fears, and minimize misunderstandings. Knowledge of other cultures opens your eyes and teaches you to expect differences. Such knowledge
• also enriches your life.
Curb ethnocentrism. Avoid judging others by your personal
views. Get over the view that the other cultures are incorrect, • defective, or primitive. Try to develop an open mind.
Avoid judgmentalism. Strive to accept other behaviour as
different rather than as right or wrong. Try not to be defensive • in justifying your culture. Strive for objectivity.
Seek common ground. When cultures clash, look for solutions that respect both cultures. Be flexible in developing compromises.
• Observe nonverbal cues in your culture. Become more alert to the meanings of eye contact, facial expression, posture, and gestures and the use of time, space, and territory. How do they differ in other cultures?
use plain english. Speak and write in short sentences and use simple words and standard English. Eliminate puns, slang, jargon, acronyms, abbreviations, and any words that cannot be easily translated.
encourage accurate feedback. In conversations, ask probing questions and listen attentively without interrupting. Do not assume that a yes or a smile indicates assent or comprehension.
Adapt to local preferences. Shape your writing to reflect the reader’s document styles, if appropriate. Express monetary amounts in local currency. Write out months of the year for clarity