12 APA Citations
Professors at Confederation College will require you to format your assignments according to APA conventions and use the APA method for any paper or presentation that contains information taken from a .
Always use the Confederation College APA Manual as a guide to ensure your work is correct.
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to
- cite your sources by including an in-text citation for paraphrases and quotes
- use narrative style citations
- use parenthetical style citations
The APA method of creating citations and references allows readers to easily find the source of information you’ve used in an assignment or report. When you cite your sources, you give credit to the original source of the information, and you strengthen your argument by showing that your ideas are supported by facts and opinions published by experts in the field.
In-text Citations
You must include in-text citations next to EVERY item of information from a . A source can be any text, video, or podcast that you took information from.
An in-text citation tells the reader the author’s last name and the publication year. You also need to include a page number (or paragraph number if your document doesn’t have pages) or a time-stamp (if your information came from a video or podcast) to tell your reader exactly where in the source the information is from. You must put these citations next to EVERY item of information from a source.
If you don’t have an author, or if you don’t know the year of publication, don’t worry – you can still cite your source. Your APA manual explains these issues in detail.
General Guidelines for Tricky Sources
- If there’s no publication date, use the abbreviation for no date (n.d.)
- If there’s no author, use the name of the government agency or organization: (Statistics Canada, 2020, para. 1).
- If there is no author or organization, use an abbreviation of the article/website title in place of the author’s name: (“10 tips”, n.d., para. 2).
- If you have two authors, list both of their last names: (Smith & Jones, 2020, p. 4).
- If you have more than two authors, state the first author’s last name and the Latin phrase et al. 🙁Smith et al., 2021, p. 27)
- If there are no page numbers but the source has headings, give the name of the heading, followed by the word “section” and the number of the paragraph within the section it is from (Smith, 2012, Discussion section, para. 3)
If you use information from a source and you do not include a citation, you have committed an act of academic dishonesty called . Please review Confederation College’s “Academic Integrity Policy” and the “Student Charter of Rights and Responsibilities”. Plagiarism is a serious offence.
Learning Check
Paraphrasing, Patchwriting, and Direct Quoting
When you include information from a source, you might (put in your own words) or directly quote (using the exact words from the source) that information.
Most professors prefer students to paraphrase information. When you paraphrase information, you put that information into your own words. By restating the information, you demonstrate to your professor that you have a strong understanding of the content of the original.
To learn more about paraphrasing, review the Paraphrasing and Paraphrasing vs. Patchwriting chapters of this e-text.
If you directly quote some information from a source, you need to put the author’s words in “quotation marks.” These “quotation marks” show that you have borrowed the author’s words as well as their ideas or information. If you’ve put the information into your own words, then you do not use “quotation marks”, but you still need to include a citation to show where the information is from. To learn more about direct quoting, review the Direct Quoting chapter of this e-text.
Learning Check
Signal phrases: Narrative and Parenthetical Style Citations
There are two ways to include your in-text citation:
- parenthetical style
- narrative style
| Direct Quote | Paraphrase | |
| Parenthetical | According to one government report on Canadian immigrants, “20% experienced over-qualification at least once in 2006 or in 2016” (Statistics Canada, 2020, para. 2). | One government report claimed that approximately one fifth of immigrants to Canada are over-qualified for the jobs they obtain in this country (Statistics Canada, 2020, para. 2). |
| Narrative | Statistics Canada (2020) reported that “20% experienced over-qualification at least once in 2006 or in 2016” (para. 2). | Statistics Canada (2020) stated that approximately one fifth of immigrants to Canada are over-qualified for the jobs they obtain in this country (para. 2). |
In the parenthetical style, all three pieces of citation information (author, date, location) are placed in parentheses at the end of the sentence, just before the final period.
In the narrative style, the three pieces of information are still present, but they are not placed together. The author (or the organization functioning as the author) is part of the sentence, so it is not in parentheses. The date always must be placed next to the author, and the location (page or paragraph number) must be placed at the end of the sentence, just before the final period.
Notice that APA style generally requires the use of past tense verbs to introduce quotes or paraphrases. Check out this list of appropriate words that you can use.
Business Communication Process & Product
Intercultural Communication (Chapter 3)
Understanding Culture
Every country or region within a country has its own common heritage, joint experience, or shared learning. This shared background produces the culture of a region, country, or society. For our purposes, culture may be defined as the complex system of values, traits, morals, and customs shared by a society. Culture teaches people how to behave and conditions their reactions. It is a powerful operating force that conditions the way we think and behave. The purpose of this chapter is to broaden your view of culture and help you develop a flexible attitude so that you can avoid frustration when cultural adjustment is necessary.
Characteristics of Culture
Culture is shaped by attitudes learned in childhood and later internalized in adulthood. As we enter this current period of globalization and interculturalism, we should expect to make adjustments and adopt new attitudes. Adjustment and accommodation will be easier if we understand some basic characteristics of culture.
Culture Is Learned.
The rules, values, and attitudes of a culture are not inherent. They are learned and passed down from generation to generation. For example, in many Middle Eastern and some Asian cultures, same-sex people may walk hand in hand in the street, but opposite-sex people may not do so. In Arab cultures conversations are often held in close proximity, sometimes nose to nose. But in Western cultures, if a person stands too close, the other may feel uncomfortable. Cultural rules of behaviour learned from your family and society are conditioned from early childhood.
Cultures are Inherently Logical.
The rules in any culture originated to reinforce that culture’s values and beliefs. They act as normative forces. Rules about how close to stand may be linked to values about sexuality, aggression, modesty, and respect. Acknowledging the inherent logic of a culture is extremely important when learning to accept behaviour that differs from our own cultural behaviour.
Culture Is the Basis of Self-Identity and Community.
Culture is the basis for how we tell the world who we are and what we believe. People build their identities through cultural overlays to their primary culture. When North Americans make choices in education, career, place of employment, and life partner, they consider certain rules, manners, ceremonies, beliefs, language, and values. These considerations add to their total cultural outlook, and they represent major expressions of a person’s self-identity.
Culture Combines the Visible and Invisible.
To outsiders, the way we act—those things that we do in daily life and work—are the most visible parts of our culture. In India, for example, people avoid stepping on ants or other insects because they believe in reincarnation and are careful about all forms of life. Such practices are outward symbols of deeper values that are invisible but that pervade everything we think and do.
Culture Is Dynamic.
Over time, cultures will change. Changes are caused by advancements in technology and communication, as discussed earlier. Local differences are modified or slowly erased. Change is also caused by such events as migration, natural disasters, and conflicts. One major event in this country was the exodus of people living on farms. When families moved to cities, major changes occurred in the way family members interacted. Attitudes, behaviours, and beliefs change in open societies more quickly than in closed societies.
Dimensions of Culture
The more you know about culture in general and your own culture in particular, the better able you will be to adapt to an intercultural perspective. A typical North American has habits and beliefs similar to those of other members of Western, technologically
Business Communication Process & Product
Intercultural Communication (Chapter 3)
Understanding Culture
Every country or region within a country has its own common heritage, joint experience, or shared learning. This shared background produces the culture of a region, country, or society. For our purposes, culture may be defined as the complex system of values, traits, morals, and customs shared by a society. Culture teaches people how to behave and conditions their reactions. It is a powerful operating force that conditions the way we think and behave. The purpose of this chapter is to broaden your view of culture and help you develop a flexible attitude so that you can avoid frustration when cultural adjustment is necessary.
Characteristics of Culture
Culture is shaped by attitudes learned in childhood and later internalized in adulthood. As we enter this current period of globalization and interculturalism, we should expect to make adjustments and adopt new attitudes. Adjustment and accommodation will be easier if we understand some basic characteristics of culture.
Culture Is Learned.
The rules, values, and attitudes of a culture are not inherent. They are learned and passed down from generation to generation. For example, in many Middle Eastern and some Asian cultures, same-sex people may walk hand in hand in the street, but opposite-sex people may not do so. In Arab cultures conversations are often held in close proximity, sometimes nose to nose. But in Western cultures, if a person stands too close, the other may feel uncomfortable. Cultural rules of behaviour learned from your family and society are conditioned from early childhood.
Cultures are Inherently Logical.
The rules in any culture originated to reinforce that culture’s values and beliefs. They act as normative forces. Rules about how close to stand may be linked to values about sexuality, aggression, modesty, and respect. Acknowledging the inherent logic of a culture is extremely important when learning to accept behaviour that differs from our own cultural behaviour.
Culture Is the Basis of Self-Identity and Community.
Culture is the basis for how we tell the world who we are and what we believe. People build their identities through cultural overlays to their primary culture. When North Americans make choices in education, career, place of employment, and life partner, they consider certain rules, manners, ceremonies, beliefs, language, and values. These considerations add to their total cultural outlook, and they represent major expressions of a person’s self-identity.
Culture Combines the Visible and Invisible.
To outsiders, the way we act—those things that we do in daily life and work—are the most visible parts of our culture. In India, for example, people avoid stepping on ants or other insects because they believe in reincarnation and are careful about all forms of life. Such practices are outward symbols of deeper values that are invisible but that pervade everything we think and do.
Culture Is Dynamic.
Over time, cultures will change. Changes are caused by advancements in technology and communication, as discussed earlier. Local differences are modified or slowly erased. Change is also caused by such events as migration, natural disasters, and conflicts. One major event in this country was the exodus of people living on farms. When families moved to cities, major changes occurred in the way family members interacted. Attitudes, behaviours, and beliefs change in open societies more quickly than in closed societies.
Dimensions of Culture
The more you know about culture in general and your own culture in particular, the better able you will be to adapt to an intercultural perspective. A typical North American has habits and beliefs similar to those of other members of Western, technologically
In terms of thinking patterns, low-context communicators tend to use linear logic. They proceed from point A to point B to point C and finally arrive at a conclusion. High-context communicators, however, may use spiral logic, circling around a topic indirectly and looking at it from many tangential or divergent viewpoints. A conclusion
-NEEDS TABLE-
may be implied but not argued directly. For a concise summary of important differences between low- and high-context cultures, see Figure 3.1.
Individualism. An attitude of independence and freedom from control character- izes individualism. Members of low-context cultures, particularly North Americans, tend to value individualism. They believe that initiative and self-assertion result in personal achievement. They believe in individual action and personal responsibility, and they desire a large degree of freedom in their personal lives.
Members of high-context cultures are more collectivist. They emphasize member- ship in organizations, groups, and teams; they encourage acceptance of group values, duties, and decisions. They typically resist independence because it fosters competition and confrontation instead of consensus.
Many cultures, of course, are quite complex and cannot be characterized as totally individualistic or group oriented. For example, Canadians of European descent are gen- erally quite individualistic, while those with Asian backgrounds may be closer to the group-centred dimension.7
Formality. People in some cultures place less emphasis on tradition, ceremony, and social rules than do members of other cultures. North Americans, for example, dress casually and are soon on a first-name basis with others. Their lack of formality is often characterized by directness. In business dealings North Americans come to the point immediately; indirectness, they feel, wastes time, a valuable commodity in North American culture.
This informality and directness may be confusing abroad. In Japan, for example, signing documents and exchanging business cards are important rituals. In Europe first names are never used without invitation. In Arab, South American, and Asian cultures, a feeling of friendship and kinship must be established before business can be transacted.
In Western cultures people are more relaxed about social status and the appearance of power.8 Deference is not generally paid to individuals merely because of their wealth, position, seniority, or age. In many Asian cultures, however, these characteristics are important and must be respected.
Communication Style. People in low- and high-context cultures tend to com- municate differently with words. To North Americans and Germans, words are very important, especially in contracts and negotiations. People in high-context cultures, conversely, place more emphasis on the surrounding context than on the words describing a negotiation. A Greek may see a contract as a formal statement announcing the intention to build a business for the future. The Japanese may treat contracts as statements of intention, and they assume changes will be made as a project develops.9
North Americans tend to take words literally, whereas Arabs and South Americans sometimes speak with extravagant or poetic figures of speech that may be misinter- preted if taken literally.10
In communication style North Americans value straightforwardness, are suspicious of evasiveness, and distrust people who might have a “hidden agenda” or who “play their cards too close to the chest.”11 North Americans also tend to be uncomfortable with silence and impatient with delays. Some Asian businesspeople have learned that the longer they drag out negotiations, the more concessions impatient North Americans are likely to make.
Western cultures have developed languages that use letters describing the sounds of words. But Asian languages are based on pictographic characters representing the meanings of words. Asian language characters are much more complex than the Western alphabet; therefore, Asians are said to have a higher competence in the discrimination of visual patterns.
time Orientation. North Americans consider time a precious commodity to be conserved. They correlate time with productivity, efficiency, and money. Keeping people waiting for business appointments wastes time and is also rude.
Bridging the Gap
Developing cultural competence often involves changing attitudes. Remember that culture is learned. Through exposure to other cultures and through training, such as you are receiving in this course, you can learn new attitudes and behaviours that help bridge gaps between cultures.
tolerance. One desirable attitude in achieving intercultural proficiency is tolerance. Closed-minded people cannot look beyond their own ethnocentrism. But as global markets expand and as our own society becomes increasingly multiethnic, tolerance becomes especially significant. Some job descriptions now include such statements as Must be able to interact with ethnically diverse personnel.
To improve tolerance, you will want to practise empathy. This means trying to see the world through another’s eyes. It means being less judgmental and more eager to seek common ground.
Accepting cultural differences and adapting to them with tolerance and empathy often results in a harmonious compromise.
Saving Face. In business transactions North Americans often assume that economic factors are the primary motivators of people. It is wise to remember, though, that strong cultural influences are also at work. Saving face, for example, is important in many parts of the world. Face refers to the image a person holds in his or her social network. Positive comments raise a person’s social standing, but negative comments lower it.
People in low-context cultures are less concerned with face. High-context cultures, on the other hand, are more concerned with preserving social harmony and saving face. They are indirect and go to great lengths to avoid giving offence by saying no. The empathic listener recognizes the language of refusal and pushes no further.
patience. Being tolerant also involves patience. If a foreigner is struggling to express an idea in English, North Americans must avoid the temptation to finish the sentence and provide the word that they presume is wanted. When we put words into their mouths, our foreign friends often smile and agree out of politeness, but our words may in fact not express their thoughts. Remaining silent is another means of exhibiting tolerance. Instead of filling every lapse in conversation, North Americans, for example, should recognize that in Asian cultures people deliberately use periods of silence for reflection and contemplation.
effective Communication in Intercultural Settings
Thus far we have discussed the increasing importance of intercultural proficiency as a result of globalization of markets, increasing migration, and technological advancements. We have described characteristics and dimensions of cultures, and we have talked about avoiding ethnocentrism. Our goal was to motivate you to unlock the opportunities offered by intercultural proficiency. Remember, the key to future business success may very well lie in finding ways to work harmoniously with people from different cultures.
Successful Nonverbal Communication in Intercultural environments Verbal skills in another culture can generally be mastered if a person studies hard enough. But nonverbal skills are much more difficult to learn. Nonverbal behaviour includes the areas described in Chapter 2, such as eye contact, facial expression, posture, gestures, and the use of time, space, and territory. The messages sent by body language
- Consider local styles. Learn how documents are formatted and addressed in the intended reader’s country. Decide whether to use your organization’s preferred format or to adjust to local styles.
- Observe titles and rank. Use last names, titles, and other signals of rank and status. Send messages to higher-status people and avoid sending copies to lower-rank people.
Use short sentences and short paragraphs. Sentences with fewer than 20 words and paragraphs with fewer than eight lines are most readable.
Avoid ambiguous expressions. Include relative pronouns (that, which, who) for clarity in introducing clauses. Stay away from contractions (especially ones like Here’s the problem). Avoid idioms and figurative clichés (once in a blue moon), slang (my presentation really bombed), acronyms (ASAP, for as soon as possible), abbreviations (DBA, for doing business as), jargon (input, bottom line), and
sports references (play ball, slam dunk, ballpark figure). Use action-specific verbs (purchase a printer rather than get a printer).
Strive for clarity. Avoid words that have many meanings (the word light has 18 different meanings!). If necessary, clarify words that may be confusing. Replace two-word verbs with clear single words (return instead of bring back; delay instead of put off; maintain instead of keep up).
Use correct grammar. Be careful of misplaced modifiers, dangling participles, and sentence fragments. Use conventional punctuation.
Cite numbers carefully. For international trade it is a good idea to use the metric system. In citing numbers use numerals (15) instead of words (fifteen). Always convert dollar amounts into local currency. Avoid using numerals to express the month of the year. In North America, for example, March 5, 2013, might be written as 3/5/13, whereas in Europe the same date might appear as 5.3.13.
Accommodate the reader in organization, tone, and style. Organize your message to appeal to the reader. For example, use the indirect strategy for high-context audiences.
The Checklist box summarizes suggestions for improving communication with intercultural audiences.
Checklist
Improving Intercultural Proficiency and Communication
Study your own culture. Learn about your customs, biases, and views and how they differ from those in other societies. This knowledge can help you better understand, appreciate,
• and accept the values and behaviour of other cultures.
Learn about other cultures. Education can help you alter cultural misconceptions, reduce fears, and minimize misunderstandings. Knowledge of other cultures opens your eyes and teaches you to expect differences. Such knowledge
• also enriches your life.
Curb ethnocentrism. Avoid judging others by your personal
views. Get over the view that the other cultures are incorrect, • defective, or primitive. Try to develop an open mind.
Avoid judgmentalism. Strive to accept other behaviour as
different rather than as right or wrong. Try not to be defensive • in justifying your culture. Strive for objectivity.
Seek common ground. When cultures clash, look for solutions that respect both cultures. Be flexible in developing compromises.
• Observe nonverbal cues in your culture. Become more alert to the meanings of eye contact, facial expression, posture, and gestures and the use of time, space, and territory. How do they differ in other cultures?
use plain english. Speak and write in short sentences and use simple words and standard English. Eliminate puns, slang, jargon, acronyms, abbreviations, and any words that cannot be easily translated.
encourage accurate feedback. In conversations, ask probing questions and listen attentively without interrupting. Do not assume that a yes or a smile indicates assent or comprehension.
Adapt to local preferences. Shape your writing to reflect the reader’s document styles, if appropriate. Express monetary amounts in local currency. Write out months of the year for clarity
Business Communication Process & Product
Intercultural Communication (Chapter 3)
Understanding Culture
Every country or region within a country has its own common heritage, joint experience, or shared learning. This shared background produces the culture of a region, country, or society. For our purposes, culture may be defined as the complex system of values, traits, morals, and customs shared by a society. Culture teaches people how to behave and conditions their reactions. It is a powerful operating force that conditions the way we think and behave. The purpose of this chapter is to broaden your view of culture and help you develop a flexible attitude so that you can avoid frustration when cultural adjustment is necessary.
Characteristics of Culture
Culture is shaped by attitudes learned in childhood and later internalized in adulthood. As we enter this current period of globalization and interculturalism, we should expect to make adjustments and adopt new attitudes. Adjustment and accommodation will be easier if we understand some basic characteristics of culture.
Culture Is Learned.
The rules, values, and attitudes of a culture are not inherent. They are learned and passed down from generation to generation. For example, in many Middle Eastern and some Asian cultures, same-sex people may walk hand in hand in the street, but opposite-sex people may not do so. In Arab cultures conversations are often held in close proximity, sometimes nose to nose. But in Western cultures, if a person stands too close, the other may feel uncomfortable. Cultural rules of behaviour learned from your family and society are conditioned from early childhood.
Cultures are Inherently Logical.
The rules in any culture originated to reinforce that culture’s values and beliefs. They act as normative forces. Rules about how close to stand may be linked to values about sexuality, aggression, modesty, and respect. Acknowledging the inherent logic of a culture is extremely important when learning to accept behaviour that differs from our own cultural behaviour.
Culture Is the Basis of Self-Identity and Community.
Culture is the basis for how we tell the world who we are and what we believe. People build their identities through cultural overlays to their primary culture. When North Americans make choices in education, career, place of employment, and life partner, they consider certain rules, manners, ceremonies, beliefs, language, and values. These considerations add to their total cultural outlook, and they represent major expressions of a person’s self-identity.
Culture Combines the Visible and Invisible.
To outsiders, the way we act—those things that we do in daily life and work—are the most visible parts of our culture. In India, for example, people avoid stepping on ants or other insects because they believe in reincarnation and are careful about all forms of life. Such practices are outward symbols of deeper values that are invisible but that pervade everything we think and do.
Culture Is Dynamic.
Over time, cultures will change. Changes are caused by advancements in technology and communication, as discussed earlier. Local differences are modified or slowly erased. Change is also caused by such events as migration, natural disasters, and conflicts. One major event in this country was the exodus of people living on farms. When families moved to cities, major changes occurred in the way family members interacted. Attitudes, behaviours, and beliefs change in open societies more quickly than in closed societies.
Dimensions of Culture
The more you know about culture in general and your own culture in particular, the better able you will be to adapt to an intercultural perspective. A typical North American has habits and beliefs similar to those of other members of Western, technologically
In terms of thinking patterns, low-context communicators tend to use linear logic. They proceed from point A to point B to point C and finally arrive at a conclusion. High-context communicators, however, may use spiral logic, circling around a topic indirectly and looking at it from many tangential or divergent viewpoints. A conclusion
-NEEDS TABLE-
may be implied but not argued directly. For a concise summary of important differences between low- and high-context cultures, see Figure 3.1.
Individualism. An attitude of independence and freedom from control character- izes individualism. Members of low-context cultures, particularly North Americans, tend to value individualism. They believe that initiative and self-assertion result in personal achievement. They believe in individual action and personal responsibility, and they desire a large degree of freedom in their personal lives.
Members of high-context cultures are more collectivist. They emphasize member- ship in organizations, groups, and teams; they encourage acceptance of group values, duties, and decisions. They typically resist independence because it fosters competition and confrontation instead of consensus.
Many cultures, of course, are quite complex and cannot be characterized as totally individualistic or group oriented. For example, Canadians of European descent are gen- erally quite individualistic, while those with Asian backgrounds may be closer to the group-centred dimension.7
Formality. People in some cultures place less emphasis on tradition, ceremony, and social rules than do members of other cultures. North Americans, for example, dress casually and are soon on a first-name basis with others. Their lack of formality is often characterized by directness. In business dealings North Americans come to the point immediately; indirectness, they feel, wastes time, a valuable commodity in North American culture.
This informality and directness may be confusing abroad. In Japan, for example, signing documents and exchanging business cards are important rituals. In Europe first names are never used without invitation. In Arab, South American, and Asian cultures, a feeling of friendship and kinship must be established before business can be transacted.
In Western cultures people are more relaxed about social status and the appearance of power.8 Deference is not generally paid to individuals merely because of their wealth, position, seniority, or age. In many Asian cultures, however, these characteristics are important and must be respected.
Communication Style. People in low- and high-context cultures tend to com- municate differently with words. To North Americans and Germans, words are very important, especially in contracts and negotiations. People in high-context cultures, conversely, place more emphasis on the surrounding context than on the words describing a negotiation. A Greek may see a contract as a formal statement announcing the intention to build a business for the future. The Japanese may treat contracts as statements of intention, and they assume changes will be made as a project develops.9
North Americans tend to take words literally, whereas Arabs and South Americans sometimes speak with extravagant or poetic figures of speech that may be misinter- preted if taken literally.10
In communication style North Americans value straightforwardness, are suspicious of evasiveness, and distrust people who might have a “hidden agenda” or who “play their cards too close to the chest.”11 North Americans also tend to be uncomfortable with silence and impatient with delays. Some Asian businesspeople have learned that the longer they drag out negotiations, the more concessions impatient North Americans are likely to make.
Western cultures have developed languages that use letters describing the sounds of words. But Asian languages are based on pictographic characters representing the meanings of words. Asian language characters are much more complex than the Western alphabet; therefore, Asians are said to have a higher competence in the discrimination of visual patterns.
time Orientation. North Americans consider time a precious commodity to be conserved. They correlate time with productivity, efficiency, and money. Keeping people waiting for business appointments wastes time and is also rude.
Bridging the Gap
Developing cultural competence often involves changing attitudes. Remember that culture is learned. Through exposure to other cultures and through training, such as you are receiving in this course, you can learn new attitudes and behaviours that help bridge gaps between cultures.
tolerance. One desirable attitude in achieving intercultural proficiency is tolerance. Closed-minded people cannot look beyond their own ethnocentrism. But as global markets expand and as our own society becomes increasingly multiethnic, tolerance becomes especially significant. Some job descriptions now include such statements as Must be able to interact with ethnically diverse personnel.
To improve tolerance, you will want to practise empathy. This means trying to see the world through another’s eyes. It means being less judgmental and more eager to seek common ground.
Accepting cultural differences and adapting to them with tolerance and empathy often results in a harmonious compromise.
Saving Face. In business transactions North Americans often assume that economic factors are the primary motivators of people. It is wise to remember, though, that strong cultural influences are also at work. Saving face, for example, is important in many parts of the world. Face refers to the image a person holds in his or her social network. Positive comments raise a person’s social standing, but negative comments lower it.
People in low-context cultures are less concerned with face. High-context cultures, on the other hand, are more concerned with preserving social harmony and saving face. They are indirect and go to great lengths to avoid giving offence by saying no. The empathic listener recognizes the language of refusal and pushes no further.
patience. Being tolerant also involves patience. If a foreigner is struggling to express an idea in English, North Americans must avoid the temptation to finish the sentence and provide the word that they presume is wanted. When we put words into their mouths, our foreign friends often smile and agree out of politeness, but our words may in fact not express their thoughts. Remaining silent is another means of exhibiting tolerance. Instead of filling every lapse in conversation, North Americans, for example, should recognize that in Asian cultures people deliberately use periods of silence for reflection and contemplation.
effective Communication in Intercultural Settings
Thus far we have discussed the increasing importance of intercultural proficiency as a result of globalization of markets, increasing migration, and technological advancements. We have described characteristics and dimensions of cultures, and we have talked about avoiding ethnocentrism. Our goal was to motivate you to unlock the opportunities offered by intercultural proficiency. Remember, the key to future business success may very well lie in finding ways to work harmoniously with people from different cultures.
Successful Nonverbal Communication in Intercultural environments Verbal skills in another culture can generally be mastered if a person studies hard enough. But nonverbal skills are much more difficult to learn. Nonverbal behaviour includes the areas described in Chapter 2, such as eye contact, facial expression, posture, gestures, and the use of time, space, and territory. The messages sent by body language
- Consider local styles. Learn how documents are formatted and addressed in the intended reader’s country. Decide whether to use your organization’s preferred format or to adjust to local styles.
- Observe titles and rank. Use last names, titles, and other signals of rank and status. Send messages to higher-status people and avoid sending copies to lower-rank people.
Use short sentences and short paragraphs. Sentences with fewer than 20 words and paragraphs with fewer than eight lines are most readable.
Avoid ambiguous expressions. Include relative pronouns (that, which, who) for clarity in introducing clauses. Stay away from contractions (especially ones like Here’s the problem). Avoid idioms and figurative clichés (once in a blue moon), slang (my presentation really bombed), acronyms (ASAP, for as soon as possible), abbreviations (DBA, for doing business as), jargon (input, bottom line), and
sports references (play ball, slam dunk, ballpark figure). Use action-specific verbs (purchase a printer rather than get a printer).
Strive for clarity. Avoid words that have many meanings (the word light has 18 different meanings!). If necessary, clarify words that may be confusing. Replace two-word verbs with clear single words (return instead of bring back; delay instead of put off; maintain instead of keep up).
Use correct grammar. Be careful of misplaced modifiers, dangling participles, and sentence fragments. Use conventional punctuation.
Cite numbers carefully. For international trade it is a good idea to use the metric system. In citing numbers use numerals (15) instead of words (fifteen). Always convert dollar amounts into local currency. Avoid using numerals to express the month of the year. In North America, for example, March 5, 2013, might be written as 3/5/13, whereas in Europe the same date might appear as 5.3.13.
Accommodate the reader in organization, tone, and style. Organize your message to appeal to the reader. For example, use the indirect strategy for high-context audiences.
The Checklist box summarizes suggestions for improving communication with intercultural audiences.
Checklist
Improving Intercultural Proficiency and Communication
Study your own culture. Learn about your customs, biases, and views and how they differ from those in other societies. This knowledge can help you better understand, appreciate,
• and accept the values and behaviour of other cultures.
Learn about other cultures. Education can help you alter cultural misconceptions, reduce fears, and minimize misunderstandings. Knowledge of other cultures opens your eyes and teaches you to expect differences. Such knowledge
• also enriches your life.
Curb ethnocentrism. Avoid judging others by your personal
views. Get over the view that the other cultures are incorrect, • defective, or primitive. Try to develop an open mind.
Avoid judgmentalism. Strive to accept other behaviour as
different rather than as right or wrong. Try not to be defensive • in justifying your culture. Strive for objectivity.
Seek common ground. When cultures clash, look for solutions that respect both cultures. Be flexible in developing compromises.
• Observe nonverbal cues in your culture. Become more alert to the meanings of eye contact, facial expression, posture, and gestures and the use of time, space, and territory. How do they differ in other cultures?
use plain english. Speak and write in short sentences and use simple words and standard English. Eliminate puns, slang, jargon, acronyms, abbreviations, and any words that cannot be easily translated.
encourage accurate feedback. In conversations, ask probing questions and listen attentively without interrupting. Do not assume that a yes or a smile indicates assent or comprehension.
Adapt to local preferences. Shape your writing to reflect the reader’s document styles, if appropriate. Express monetary amounts in local currency. Write out months of the year for clarity
