Nation-to-Nation Relationships

Wampum beads and wampum belts are a powerful tool for recording, affirming, interpreting, and enshrining events of significance for First   Peoples on Turtle Island.

Wampum belts consist of carefully placed strings of knotted wampum beads, which are made from quahog clam, whelk, or cowrie shells (Muller, 2007; Windatt, 2016a). You can see images of these shells and the beads in the gallery below. Whelk and cowrie shells produce the signature white wampum beads; quahog clam shells are used to create the beautiful and vibrant purple wampum beads. The beads are carefully drilled through the centre and strung on threads of bark or deer sinew. Wampum beads are sacred to Indigenous Peoples, and the process of knotting wampum beads in string or belt form is considered spiritual and done with meaning (Johansen & Mann, 2000).

Meaning of Wampum

Wampum belts and strings of wampum were developed by First Peoples to assist community members and Nations in recalling and recording events (Johansen & Mann, 2000; Muller, 2007). The information embedded in the belts and strings – carefully selected symbols, patterns, letters, and images – also enabled Indigenous Peoples to relay complex messages, intention, and promise through the giving and acceptance of wampum. Wampum could act as a pledge during marriage ceremonies, or be given as a token of respect across council fires or in times of mourning. Wampum belts were traditionally worn across the body like a sash, and could, if the creator wanted, carry two meanings: one on the front and one on the back (CRFN, 2015; Johansen & Mann, 2000; Muller, 2007; Peskotomuhkati Nation, 2018).

Indigenous communities all over Turtle Island, from the East Coast to the Great Lakes, and through the Great Plains, utilized wampum beads and belts. For example, the Anishinaabe and Haudenosaunee would exchange wampum belts as a peace symbol after a period of war. Similarly, Nations at peace would attach a wampum belt to their canoe when travelling through another Nation’s territory, outlining and reminding them of a specific peace agreement. All who read the wampum would recognize the meaning and allow the visitors safe passage under the wampum covenant (Chippewas of Rama First Nation, 2015).

Reading Wampum

Wampum that were gifted or created to record events were meant to be taken out annually to be read by wampum keepers. These were people skilled at reading wampum belts and sharing or interpreting their meaning for community members and visitors. Revisiting the wampum on a regular basis was meant to remind participants of their presence and keep alive the purpose and significance of their meaning. In this sense, wampum belts, when given for an event or to commemorate an agreement, acted as a covenant, in much the same way that legally binding contracts did for Euro-Canadians (CRFN, 2015).

The imagery on wampum belts is best described as wampum writing. Traditionally, many Indigenous Nations did not speak the same language, but they all possessed knowledge of the standard symbols, patterns, and colours of the wampum, allowing them to generate the same interpretation of the message presented (Johansen & Mann, 2000). For example, red paint on a belt was understood by all to indicate a message of war, and it was washed away once peace returned (CRFN, 2015; Muller, 2007; Peskotomuhkati Nation, 2018). The responsibility of passing this knowledge on to future generations was entrusted to wampum keepers in each Nation (CRFN, 2015; Johansen & Mann, 2000; Muller, 2007). Today, some communities still have wampum keepers who can “read” the wampum; other communities rely on memorized wampum meanings passed down from previous generations (Muller, 2007).

Monetizing Wampum: A Misconception

Because Europeans recognized the value of wampum to First Peoples, they sought to monetize wampum for use in trade. The Dutch, French, and English engaged in the construction and trading of wampum strings and belts in their political and commercial interactions with Indigenous communities for over 250 years (CRFN, 2015; Johansen & Mann, 2000; Keagle, 2013; Windatt, 2016b). Today, beads and belts are often erroneously described as a form of currency. This was not true for the Indigenous communities who created the wampum. This misconception, however, can be traced back to a decision made by the Dutch around 1610 to manufacture wampum beads on their own from conch shells. These reproductions flooded the market, lowering the perceived value of beads manufactured by Indigenous communities (Johansen & Mann, 2000). By the eighteenth century, the British had monetarily quantified the wampum bead, valuing the purple shell to the white shell at a 2:1 ratio and establishing exchange rates for wampum based on European money and the value of animal skins (Johansen & Mann, 2000).

Honouring Wampum

Today, many of the wampum belts that were created and gifted during the colonial era on Turtle Island have been lost, sold to private collections, buried in special ceremonies for the dead, or placed into museums (CRFN, 2015; Muller, 2007). However, there are still some famous and culturally significant belts that have been recorded and even repatriated to the communities and Nations to whom they belong. The gallery in this section will help you better understand the nature of wampum belts, teaching you to recognize key symbols and identify the meaning and importance of some of the associated historical and spiritual agreements. These agreements are important to both Indigenous Peoples and non-Indigenous people on Turtle Island as they enshrine and re-affirm nation-to-nation relationships established long ago.