9 Psychosocial Theory
Anne Baird
The Ego Rules
Erik Erikson (1902-1994) was a student of Freud’s and expanded on his theory of psychosexual development by emphasizing the importance of culture in parenting practices and motivations and adding three stages of adult development (Erikson, 1950; 1968). He believed that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life and the ego has greater importance in guiding our actions than does the id. We make conscious choices in life and these choices focus on meeting certain social and cultural needs rather than purely biological ones. Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place, that we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a meaningful life. These are all psychosocial problems. Erikson divided the life span into eight stages. In each stage, we have a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome. Erikson believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our life span as we face these challenges in living. We will discuss each of these stages in length as we explore each period of the life span, but here is a brief overview
Psychosocial Stages
- Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1): the infant must have basic needs met in a consistent way in order to feel that the world is a trustworthy place
- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-2): mobile toddlers have newfound freedom they like to exercise and by being allowed to do so, they learn some basic independence
- Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5): preschoolers like to initiate activities and emphasize doing things “all by myself”
- Industry vs. Inferiority (6-11): school aged children focus on accomplishments and begin making comparisons between themselves and their classmates
- Identity vs. Identity Confusion (adolescence): teenagers are trying to gain a sense of identity as they experiment with various roles, beliefs, and ideas
- Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood): in our 20s and 30s we are making some of our first long-term commitments in intimate relationships
- Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood): the 40s through the early 60s we focus on being productive at work and home and are motivated by wanting to feel that we’ve made a contribution to society
- Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood): we look back on our lives and hope to like what we see-that we have lived well and have a sense of integrity because we lived according to our beliefs.
These eight stages form a foundation for discussions on emotional and social development during the life span. Keep in mind, however, that these stages or crises can occur more than once. For instance, a person may struggle with a lack of trust beyond infancy under certain circumstances. Erikson’s theory has been criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is prerequisite for the next crisis of development. His theory also focuses on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all. For instance, the idea that adolescence is a time of searching for identity might translate well in the middle-class culture of the United States, but not as well in cultures where the transition into adulthood coincides with puberty through rites of passage and where adult roles offer fewer choices.
Media Attributions
the first of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, between birth and 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant either comes to view other people and himself or herself as trustworthy or comes to develop a fundamental distrust of his or her environment. The growth of basic trust, considered essential for the later development of self-esteem and healthy interpersonal relationships, is attributed to a primary caregiver who is responsively attuned to the infant’s individual needs while conveying the quality of trustworthiness, whereas the growth of basic mistrust is attributed to neglect, lack of love, or inconsistent treatment. The child must experience both trust and mistrust to know how to truly trust.
the second of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, between the ages of 1½ and 3 years. During this stage, children acquire a degree of self-reliance and self-confidence if allowed to develop at their own pace but may begin to doubt their ability to control themselves and their world if parents are overcritical, overprotective, or inconsistent.
the third of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, which occurs during the child’s 3rd through 5th years. In planning, launching, and initiating fantasy, play, and other activity, the child learns to believe in his or her ability to successfully pursue goals. However, if these pursuits often fail or are criticized, the child may develop instead a feeling of self-doubt and guilt.
the fourth of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, occurring from ages 6 to 11 years, during which the child learns to be productive and to accept evaluation of his or her efforts or becomes discouraged and feels inferior or incompetent.
the fifth of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, marked by an identity crisis that occurs during adolescence. During this stage, the individual may experience a psychosocial moratorium, a period of time that permits experimentation with social roles. The individual may “try on” different roles and identify with different groups before forming a cohesive, positive identity that allows him or her to contribute to society; alternatively, the individual may identify with outgroups to form a negative identity or may remain confused about his or her sense of identity, a state Erikson calls identity diffusion.
the sixth of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, which extends from late adolescence through courtship and early family life to early middle age. During this period, individuals must learn to share and care without losing themselves; if they fail, they will feel alone and isolated. The development of a cohesive identity in the previous stage (identity versus identity confusion) provides the opportunity to achieve true intimacy, but the development of identity diffusion makes it harder for individuals to achieve a positive outcome at this stage.
the seventh stage of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development. Generativity is the positive goal of middle adulthood, interpreted in terms not only of procreation but also of creativity and fulfilling one’s full parental and social responsibilities toward the next generation, in contrast to a narrow interest in the self, or self-absorption.
the eighth and final stage of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, which occurs during old age. In this stage, the individual reflects on the life he or she has lived and may develop either integrity—a sense of satisfaction in having lived a good life and the ability to approach death with equanimity—or despair—a feeling of bitterness about opportunities missed and time wasted, and a dread of approaching death.
