9.3 Hofstede’s Cultural Framework
Learning Objectives
- Describe how culture can be understood through Hofstede’s cultural framework.
Despite a drop during the pandemic, the number of international post-secondary students in Canada and the United States is significant and has been increasing over the years (Statistics Canada, 2021; Silver, 2021) , so most students of larger institutions likely encounter peers from a variety of countries on their campuses. In our globally interconnected world of business, employees will likely face someone from another country at some point in their careers, companies will negotiate with companies from other countries, and even employees of domestic companies will likely encounter someone from another country.
Trends suggest that immigration, the movement of people from their home country to other countries, will continue to grow worldwide – this process contributes to making companies’ workforces increasingly diverse. Additionally, many multinational companies rely on expatriates to run their local operations. An expatriate (or “expat”) is a foreign employee who moves to and works in another country for an extended period of time. All of these trends mean that after graduation, you are likely to encounter someone from a different culture during your career, and the potential for cross-cultural tensions is high. It is therefore important for any international leadership student to understand culture to better prepare for dealing with such tensions.
According to Geert Hofstede (2001), a Dutch social psychologist, culture is “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the member of one group or category of people from another.” It tells people who they are, which behaviors are appropriate, and which are not acceptable in any society. It affects almost everything we do, see, feel, and believe. In fact, if you have heard of the “American dream,” where if one works hard, one can achieve one’s dream, you are aware of one characteristic aspect of American culture. Read more about the American Dream in Canada .
Consider any aspect of your life, and it is likely influenced by your culture. The food you eat, the clothes you wear, and even how you address your boss or teacher are influenced by your culture. Societies develop cultural norms, values, and beliefs to assist their members in adapting to their environments.
Why is an understanding of culture critical to a leader in a global environment? As you have already seen, anyone from any country is likely to encounter someone from another country at the workplace. Such interactions can result in misunderstandings or tensions if not properly managed. Business magazines are full of examples of cross-cultural misunderstandings that have doomed relationships and business. Refer to some interesting cross-cultural business failures. For another example, North American leaders sent to Beijing, China, may become frustrated because they find that their hosts are more interested in socializing than concluding a deal. Understanding Chinese culture can prevent this type of misunderstanding because North Americans would understand that it is very important for Chinese companies to get to know who they are working with before signing any deal. In this section, you will learn about one of the most powerful tools for understanding cultural differences: Hofstede’s model of national culture. (See Table 9.3.1)
| Hofstede’s Model of National Culture | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Countries | Power Distance | Individualism | Uncertainty Avoidance | Masculinity |
| Adapted from Hofstede, G. (2001) | ||||
| Australia | Low | High | Low | High |
| Canada | Low | High | Low | High |
| China | High | Low | Medium | Medium |
| Germany | Low | High | Medium | High |
| Mexico | High | Medium | High | High |
| France | High | High | High | Low |
| Spain | Medium | Medium | High | Low |
| Greece | Medium | Medium | High | Medium |
| Denmark | Low | High | Low | Low |
| Finland | Low | High | Medium | Low |
| Brazil | High | Medium | Medium | Medium |
| India | High | Medium | Low | Medium |
| Japan | Low | Medium | High | High |
| U.K. | Low | High | Low | High |
| U.S.A. | Low | High | Low | High |
Hofstede is a Dutch social scientist who developed his model by surveying over 88,000 employees in IBM subsidiaries from 72 countries. Hofstede developed this cultural model primarily on the basis of differences in values and beliefs regarding work goals. Hofstede’s framework is especially useful because it provides important information about differences between countries and how to manage such differences. Recent reviews of research have shown the utility of Hofstede’s framework for a wide variety of managerial activities, such as change management, conflict management, leadership, negotiation, and work-related attitudes (Kirkman et al., 2006).
Cultural Dimension 1: Power Distance
Hofstede’s original survey of more than 88,000 employees from 72 countries revealed four major cultural dimensions. The first cultural dimension is power distance, the degree to which members of a society accept differences in power and authority. In societies with high power distance, people are more likely to accept that power inequality is good and acceptable. People in high power distance societies are more likely to accept that there are some powerful people who are in charge and that these people are entitled to special benefits. In contrast, societies with low power distance tend to consider that all members are equal. Table 9.3.2 shows the levels of power distance (and the other cultural dimensions discussed later) in 15 selected societies. Hofstede’s scores range from 100 (the highest power distance) to 0 (the lowest). In the table, we break Hofstede’s scores into high (70–100), medium (40–69), and low (0–39).
| Type of Work Activity | High Power Distance | Low Power Distance |
|---|---|---|
| Adapted from Hofstede (2001) | ||
| Organizational structures |
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| Managerial authority |
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| Relationship with supervisors |
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| Other issues |
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As Table 9.3.2 shows, many of the emerging markets in regions such as Asia and Latin America, such as India, Brazil, and Mexico, all have high power distance scores. In such countries, the concern for hierarchy and inequality in organizations is rooted in early socialization in the family and school. In these countries, children are expected to obey their parents and elders. When these children enter school, teachers assume the dominant role. Children must show respect, and they seldom challenge a teacher’s authority. As these individuals take on work roles, the allegiance to teachers is transferred to bosses. Thus, people in high power distance societies will seldom question their supervisors. In contrast, Anglo countries such as the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom have low power distance. In these countries, people do not expect power differences, and everyone is seen as an equal.
Leadership Implications of Power Distance
What are the implications of power distance for international leadership? Table 9.3.2 shows some of the key differences between high and low power distance societies for work-related issues. As you can see, it is important for leaders to express their authority and know-how in high power distance societies. Subordinates expect clear directions from their leaders and assume they will be told what to do. In high power distance societies, employees will often equate age with wisdom and seniority. For instance, if a multinational is sending people to negotiate in a high power distance country, they should send higher-level and older leaders if they want to be taken seriously.
Cultural Dimension 2: Individualism and Collectivism
The second cultural dimension we consider here is individualism/collectivism. Individualism refers to the degree to which a society focuses on the relationship of the individual to the group. Collectivism refers to the degree to which a society focuses on the relationship of the group as a whole.
In societies with high individualism (or low collectivism) scores, individuals are valued for their achievements and are rewarded and recognized for such achievements. In contrast, people who live in societies with low individualism (high collectivism) are seen as being part of a wider group, known as the in-group. The in-group includes the family, team, or social class, and how individuals relate to much wider groups is seen as important to their success. In other words, people’s success is gauged by how others in their groups view and support them.
Table 9.3.3 shows the levels of individualism in the same selected 15 nations. We again see similar patterns whereby more Anglo cultures such as the U.S., Canada, and the U.K. have relatively high levels of individualism. In contrast, Asian, Latin American, and many emerging countries tend to have cultures that are either in the medium or low range of the individualism dimension. Table 9.3.3 shows some of the implications of individualism for leadership. The effects of most leadership practices are determined by whether they are done at a group or individual level. For example, in countries with low individualism, one will find that employees are hired and promoted mostly on the basis of association with a larger group, such as a university or high school. In such societies, emphasis is placed on loyalty, seniority, and age. To operate smoothly in such societies, companies need to appreciate the importance of the larger social group. Additionally, as Table 9.3.3 shows, care should be taken in terms of how rewards are distributed. Rewarding individual team members in low individualism societies can result in tensions because the individual team member may become stigmatized. In such cases, rewards done on a group level may work best.
| Type of Work Activity | Low Individualism/High Collectivism | High Individualism/Low Collectivism |
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| Adapted from Hofstede (2001) | ||
| Relationship with companies |
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Human resource, management |
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Other issues |
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Cultural Dimension 3: Uncertainty Avoidance
Hofstede’s third cultural dimension is uncertainty avoidance, the degree to which people in a society are comfortable with risk, uncertainty, and unpredictable situations. People in high uncertainty avoidance societies tend to want to avoid uncertainty and unpredictability. As a result, work environments in such countries try to provide stability and certainty through clear rules and instructions. In contrast, societies with low uncertainty avoidance are comfortable with risk, change, and unpredictability. In these countries, risky and ambiguous situations are less likely to upset people.
Table 9.3.4 shows details of the levels of uncertainty avoidance for the selected 15 countries. We see that Anglo and Scandinavian countries have relatively lower uncertainty avoidance scores. In contrast, many emerging markets (such as Brazil, Mexico, and China) have medium to high uncertainty avoidance scores. Such findings suggest that companies should adapt their practices to conform to the levels of uncertainty avoidance. In high uncertainty avoidance countries, for example, leaders are advised to provide structure and order to reduce uncertainty and ambiguity for subordinates. Companies in these cultures have many written rules and procedures that tell employees exactly what the organization expects of them. Additionally, leaders should give clear and explicit directions to their subordinates about exactly what is expected of them in performing their jobs. By reducing any ambiguity, subordinates are less anxious.
In contrast, in low uncertainty avoidance countries, subordinates are much more comfortable and ambiguous. Leaders can therefore give more flexibility and freedom to employees. The design of organizations also allows for fewer rules and regulations.
| Type of Work Activity | Low Uncertainty Avoidance | High Uncertainty Avoidance |
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| Based on Geert Hofstede, “Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors and institutions across nations,” 2nd edition, 2001, page 169-170, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. | ||
| Relationship with companies |
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| Characteristics of supervisors/leaders |
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| Entrepreneurship and innovation |
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Cultural Dimension 4: Masculinity
The fourth and final dimension we consider is masculinity, the degree to which a society emphasizes traditional masculine qualities such as advancement and earnings. In high-masculinity societies, work tends to be very important to people, gender roles are clear, and work takes priority over other aspects of a person’s life, such as family and leisure. In addition, masculine societies emphasize earnings and achievements, and employees tend to work very long hours and take very little vacation time.
Table 9.3.5 shows the masculine scores for selected societies. As the table shows, Anglo cultures such as the U.S. and Canada tend to have high masculinity. This is not surprising given that both the U.S. and Canada tend to have some of the highest numbers of hours worked. In contrast, Latin European countries such as France and Spain have much lower masculinity as reflected in the importance of leisure in these societies. Scandinavian cultures also reflect low masculinity, a characteristic that is consistent with the preference for quality of life in such countries. We also see that many of the emerging nations have medium to high masculinity.
Table 9.3.5 also provides some more insights into the implications of masculinity differences for work-related issues. As you can see, companies in high-masculinity societies can count on very work-oriented employees. Multinationals are therefore advised to motivate their employees through pay and security. In contrast, individuals in more feminine societies tend to prefer interesting work and more leisure. Strong motivational policies in these societies emphasize a balance between work and leisure, and multinationals in such societies tend to have stronger policies catering to both genders.
| Type of Work Activity | High Masculinity | Low Masculinity |
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| Based on Geert Hofstede, “Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors and institutions across nations,” 2nd edition, 2001, page 318, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. | ||
| Relationship with work |
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| Leaders’ characteristics |
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| Other issues |
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Exercises
One of the underlying themes of cross-cultural research is that countries tend to cluster around cultural dimensions. For instance, we saw how Anglo cultures, Latin American cultures, and Scandinavian cultures countries tend to share similar cultural characteristics. Such categorizations are useful because they help leaders simplify their organizational world.
- Describe Hofstede’s approach to defining national culture.
- Describe power distance and its implications for leaders in in cultural contexts.
- Describe individualism versus collectivism and its implications for leaders in cultural contexts.
- Describe uncertainty avoidance and its implications for leaders in in cultural contexts.
Key Takeaways
Given the importance of globalization, leaders need to be able to understand the cultural aspects of a society in which they may find themselves and will need to learn how to adapt to various cultural conditions. The most popular cultural framework, the Hofstede scheme, was developed by Geert Hofstede, a Dutch social scientist who surveyed over 88,000 employees in 72 countries in which IBM had subsidiaries. He developed this cultural model primarily on the basis of differences in values and beliefs regarding work goals. This effort resulted in four main dimensions: power distance (the degree to which societies accept power differences and authority in society), individualism (the degree to which a society focuses on the relationship of the individual to the group), uncertainty avoidance (the degree to which people in a society are comfortable with uncertainty and unpredictable situations), and masculinity (the degree to which a society emphasizes traditional masculine qualities such as advancement and earnings).
“Hofstede’s Cultural Framework” in Principles of Management by OpenStax is licensed under under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
