Comma Rule 1.1: Put a comma before coordinating conjunctions in compound sentences.

Put a comma before the coordinating conjunction (e.g., and, but, so) that joins two independent clauses in a compound sentence. A compound sentence contains two or more clauses that can stand on their own as sentences (see Table 4.3.2b for more on compounds sentences) with a different subject in each clause.

Correct:

• We were having the time of our lives, and our lucky streak was far from over.
• Why it’s correct: A comma precedes the coordinating conjunction “and” joining the independent clause beginning with the subject “We” and another beginning with the subject “our lucky streak.”

Correct:

• The first round of layoffs was welcomed by all, but the second devastated morale.
• Why it’s correct: A comma precedes the coordinating conjunction “but” joining the independent clause beginning with the subject “The first round” and another beginning with the subject “the second.”

Correct:

• The management blamed external factors, yet none of the company’s blunders would have happened under good leadership.
• Why it’s correct: A comma precedes the coordinating conjunction “yet” joining the independent clause beginning with the subject “The management” and another beginning with the subject “none.”

Correct:

• You can take advantage of this golden opportunity, or a thousand other investors will take advantage of it instead as soon as they know about it.
• Why it’s correct: A comma precedes the coordinating conjunction “or” joining the independent clause beginning with the subject “You” and another beginning with the subject “a thousand.”

Correct:

• He didn’t see the necessity of lean principles, nor would they have made sense in a business model based on inefficiency.
• Why it’s correct: A comma precedes the coordinating conjunction “nor” joining the independent clause beginning with the subject “He” and another beginning with the subject “they.”

Correct:

• Market forces left them behind, for the law of supply and demand isn’t necessarily a force for social justice.
• Why it’s correct: A comma precedes the coordinating conjunction “for” joining the independent clause beginning with the subject “Market forces” and another beginning with the subject “the law.”

Correct:

• The competition started to heat up, so we did everything we could to protect our assets.
• Why it’s correct: A comma precedes the coordinating conjunction “so” joining the independent clause beginning with the subject “The competition” and another beginning with the subject “we.”
• Exception: If the two independent clauses are short (five words or fewer), the comma may be unnecessary.

Correct:

• You bring the wine and we’ll make dinner.
• Why it’s correct: A comma is unnecessary before the coordinating conjunction “and” joining the two short, four-word independent clauses beginning with the subjects “You” and “we.”

Comma Rule 1.2: Don’t put a comma between independent clauses in a compound sentence if not followed by a coordinating conjunction.

Don’t put a comma between two independent clauses if it’s not followed by a coordinating conjunction because this is a comma splice sentence error (see §5.2.1.1). We have two distinct ways of forming a compound sentence (see §4.3.2) and a comma splice confuses the two. One way of making a compound sentence is to join independent clauses by placing a comma and one of the seven “fanboys” coordinating conjunctions between them (see Table 4.3.2a for the coordinating conjunctions). Simply omitting the coordinating conjunction after the comma makes a comma splice. The other way of making a compound sentence is to end the first clause with a semicolon when it doesn’t make sense to use any of the coordinating conjunctions to establish a certain relationship between the clauses (see Table §4.3.2b on sentence varieties for more on compound sentences and Semicolon Rule 1 below). Using a comma instead of a semicolon in such compound sentences makes a comma splice.

• Return to Quick Rules: Commas
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Comma Rule 2.1: Put a comma after introductory subordinate clauses, phrases, or words preceding main clauses.

Put a comma before the main clause (a.k.a. independent clause) when it is preceded by an introductory word, phrase (e.g., a prepositional or participial phrase), or subordinate clause (a.k.a. dependent clause) in a complex sentence.

Correct:

• If we follow our project plan’s critical path down to the minute, we will finish on time and on budget.
• Why it’s correct: The comma separates the subordinate clause beginning with the subordinating conjunction “If” from the main clause (beginning with the subject “we”) that follows it.

Correct:

• When my ship comes in, I’ll be repaying every favour anyone ever did for me.
• Why it’s correct: The comma separates the subordinate clause, beginning with the subordinating conjunction “When,” from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject “I.”

Correct:

• To make ourselves better understood, we’ve left post-it notes all around the room.
• Why it’s correct: The comma separates the introductory infinitive phrase, beginning with the infinitive verb “To make,” from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject “we.”

Correct:

• After the flood, the Poulins took out some expensive disaster insurance.
• Why it’s correct: The comma separates the introductory prepositional phrase, beginning with the preposition “after,” from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject “the Poulins.”

Correct:

• Greeting me at the door, she said that I was a half hour early and would have to wait to see the director.
• Why it’s correct: The comma separates the introductory participial phrase, beginning with the present participle (Simmons, 2001a) “Greeting,” from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject “she.”

Correct:

• The downturn of 2008 now forgotten, the investors threw other people’s money around like it was 2007 again.
• Why it’s correct: The comma separates the introductory absolute phrase, ending with the past participle (Simmons, 2001a) “forgotten,” from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject “the investors.”

Correct:

• Delighted, she accepted their offer even with the conditions.
• Why it’s correct: The comma separates the single-word introductory past-participle appositive (Simmons, 2001b) “Delighted” from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject “she.”

Correct:

• Therefore, you are encouraged to submit your timesheet the Friday before payday.
• Why it’s correct: The comma separates the introductory conjunctive adverb (Simmons, 2007b) “Therefore” from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject “you.”

Correct:

• However, there’s not much we can do if the patient refuses our help.
• Why it’s correct: The comma separates the introductory conjunctive adverb “However” from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject “you.”

Correct:

• Yes, please go ahead and submit your payment.
• Why it’s correct: The comma separates the single-word introductory interjection “Yes” from the main clause imperative clause that follows it, the core of which is the verb “go.”

Correct:

• Hello, Claude:
• Why it’s correct: The comma marks the pause between the greeting word and name address in a respectful, semiformal salutation opening email.
• Exception: The comma is unnecessary if the introductory dependent clause or prepositional phrase is short (fewer than four words) and its omission doesn’t cause confusion.

Correct:

• At this point we’re not accepting any applications.
• Why it’s correct: Omitting the comma after the short, three-word prepositional phrase doesn’t cause confusion.

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Comma Rule 2.2: Don’t put a comma after main clauses followed by subordinate clauses or phrases unless the latter strikes a contrast with the former.

Don’t put a comma after a main clause (a.k.a. independent clause) if it is followed by a subordinate (a.k.a. dependent) clause or phrase in a complex sentence. If the subordinate clause begins with a contrasting subordinating conjunction such as “although,” a comma must separate the two clauses.

Correct:

• You can’t apply for permits from the city  because you haven’t even secured funding yet.
• Why it’s correct: A comma is unnecessary because the subordinate clause, beginning with the subordinating conjunction “because,” follows the main clause rather than precedes it, so you can read it without a pause.

Correct:

• We will finish on time and on budget if we follow the critical path of our plan to the minute.
• Why it’s correct: A comma is unnecessary because the subordinate clause, beginning with the subordinating conjunction “if,” follows the main clause rather than precedes it, so you can read it without a pause.

Correct:

• I’ll be repaying every favour anyone ever did for me when my ship comes in.
• Why it’s correct: A comma is unnecessary because the subordinate clause, beginning with the subordinating conjunction “when,” follows the main clause rather than precedes it, so you can read it without a pause.

Correct:

• The Poulins took out some expensive disaster insurance after the flood.
• Why it’s correct: A comma is unnecessary because the prepositional phrase, beginning with the preposition “after,” follows the main clause rather than precedes it, so you can read it without a pause.

Correct:

• We’re not accepting any applications at this time, though we might make an exception for a truly remarkable applicant.
• Why it’s correct: A comma is necessary because the subordinate clause, beginning with the subordinating conjunction “though,” strikes a contrast with the main clause that precedes it, making a pause appropriate.

Correct:

• We could easily hire a new full-time assistant in the fourth quarter, unless our profit margin drops below 5% in the third.
• Why it’s correct: A comma is necessary because the subordinate clause, beginning with the subordinating conjunction “unless,” strikes a contrast with the main clause that precedes it, making a pause appropriate.

• Return to Quick Rules: Commas
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Comma Rule 3.1: Put commas around parenthetical words, phrases, or clauses.

Put commas before and after parenthetical or non-essential words, phrases, or clauses that would leave the sentence grammatically correct if you omitted them. Placed in the middle of a sentence between the subject and predicate or at the end of the sentence, however, those elements lend further detail to the words or phrases that come just before them. Commas in this way function as a lighter form of parentheses (see §5.3.5 below).

Correct:

• The promotion went to Mr. Speck, who neither wanted nor deserved it, to make it look like something was being done about the glass ceiling.
• Why it’s correct: Like parentheses, the commas mark off the relative clause beginning with the relative pronoun “who” in the middle of the sentence, lending more information on the word coming just before (“Mr. Speck”).

Correct:

• Global Solutions went on a hiring spree, which was well-timed given the change in telecoms legislation that was about to come down.
• Why it’s correct: The comma marks the switch to a restrictive relative clause beginning with the relative pronoun “which” after the main clause, lending more information to its final word, “hiring spree.” The restrictive relative clause is non-essential in the sense that the main clause still means the same thing if the restrictive clause were omitted.

Correct:

• We’ll get back to you as soon as possible, needless to say.
• Why it’s correct: The comma marks the switch to an interjection tacked onto the end of the sentence.

Correct:

• The second customer, on the other hand, absolutely loved the new colour.
• Why it’s correct: The comma marks off a parenthetical prepositional phrase separating the subject from the predicate in the middle of the sentence.

Correct:

• The time for expressing interest in the buy-out option, however, had long since passed.
• Why it’s correct: The commas mark off the conjunctive adverb “however” interjected between the subject and the predicate in the middle of the sentence.

Correct:

• We’ve heard that, in fact, the delegation won’t be coming after all.
• Why it’s correct: The commas mark off a parenthetical prepositional phrase interjected between the subject and the predicate in the middle of the sentence.

Correct:

• Always treat the customer with respect, unless of course certain behaviours, such as belligerent drunkenness, compel you to take a firm stand against them.
• Why it’s correct: The commas mark off a parenthetical phrase offering an example interjected between the subject and the predicate in the middle of the dependent clause.

Correct:

• The nicest thing about you, Josh, is that you get the best work out of your employees by only praising achievements rather than criticizing mistakes.
• Why it’s correct: The commas mark off a parenthetical appositive address clarifying who “you” is between the subject and the predicate in the middle of the sentence.

Correct:

• I sent the application to Grace Garrison, the departmental secretary, last Tuesday.
• Why it’s correct: The commas mark off a parenthetical appositive noun phrase identifying the role of the person named.
• Exceptions: When the appositive is so close to the noun it modifies that the sentence wouldn’t make sense without it, omit the commas. Also omit commas:
  • Before such as when exemplifying non-parenthetically
  • Around restrictive relative clauses (i.e., those beginning with that; see Comma Rule 3.6)
  • If too many commas would clutter the sentence, in which case you would drop any comma that wouldn’t cause confusion if omitted

Correct:

• Departmental secretary Grace Garrison received the application Tuesday.
• Why it’s correct: You can omit commas around the appositive following “Departmental secretary” because “Departmental secretary received the application” wouldn’t make sense unless “The” preceded it.

Correct:

• They offer competitive fringe benefits such as health and dental coverage, three weeks’ paid vacation per year, and sick leave.
• Why it’s correct: A comma would be excessive before the “such as” phrase introducing the list of examples unless it appeared as a parenthetical aside in the middle of the sentence.

Correct:

• We don’t have to go, and of course they don’t have to take us.
• Why it’s correct: Adding commas around “of course,” though technically correct, would be excessive and look cluttered, so the parenthetical commas drop in priority to the comma separating compounded independent clauses.

• Return to Quick Rules: Commas
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Comma Rule 3.2: Put a comma before contrasting coordinate elements, end-of-sentence shifts, and omitted repetitions.

Put commas before end-of-sentence:

• Questions that seek confirmation of the main-clause point by asking the opposite
• Phrases that begin with not and state what the main-clause point seeks to correct
• Coordinate elements that contrast or further extend the main-clause point

Correct:

• This presentation seems like it’s gone on for days, doesn’t it?
• Why it’s correct: The comma marks off the question added to the end of the sentence to ask whether the opposite of the main-clause point is true as a way of seeking agreement with it.

Correct:

• Please send the document to Accounts Receivable, not Payable.
• Why it’s correct: The comma marks off the contrasting element added to the end, abbreviating the clause “do not send the document to Accounts Payable,” which has the exact structure of the main clause, but shows only the words that differ from the main-clause wording rather than repeating most of it to make a compound sentence.

Correct:

• The potential we envision for AI is that it will at best bring a world of convenience and leisure, at worst total annihilation.
• Why it’s correct: The comma marks off the clause that states the complementary contrast to the first statement by omitting the repeated relative clause root “it will . . . bring.”

Correct:

• The president’s statement to the media seemed incoherent, even demented.
• Why it’s correct: The comma marks off the clause that extends the main clause statement assuming the same root structure.

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Comma Rule 3.3: Put a comma before sentence-ending free-modifier phrases that describe elements at the beginning or middle of sentences.

Put commas before phrases that appear at the end of a sentence but modify (describe) actions or things at the sentence’s beginning or middle. As long as such phrases don’t cause confusion with their ambiguity, they are free to either follow the noun they modify or appear at the end.

Correct:

• The MC desperately cued for applause, clapping aggressively.
• Why it’s correct: The comma marks off the sentence-ending participial phrase starting with the present participle “clapping” describes the action “cued” in the middle of the sentence.

• Return to Quick Rules: Commas
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Comma Rule 3.4: Put commas around higher levels of organization in dates, places, addresses, names, and numbers.

Put commas around the:

• Year when preceded by a month and date
• Date when preceded by a day of the week
• Larger geographical region (e.g., province, state, country, etc.) when preceded by smaller one (e.g., city or town) in a sentence or long address line
• Title or credential (e.g., ND, MD, PhD) following a name
• Groups of thousands in large numbers

Correct:

• The release date of April 14, 2019, will be honoured if there are no delays.
• Why it’s correct: The commas mark off the year as parenthetical in the three-part date to ensure that there is no ambiguity about which April 14 (2018? 2020?) is intended.

Correct:

• We agreed to continue our meeting on Thursday, January 28, to cover the agenda items we didn’t get to on Monday.
• Why it’s correct: The commas mark off the calendar date as parenthetical after the day of the week to ensure that there is no ambiguity about which Thursday is intended.

Correct:

• Gord Downie was born in Amherstview, Ontario, to a traveling salesman father and stay-at-home mother.
• Why it’s correct: The commas mark off the province as parenthetical after the smaller town to ensure that there is no ambiguity about which town is intended, assuming other towns in other provinces may share the same name.

Correct:

• Bowie was born David Robert Jones in London, England, on 8 January 1947.
• Why it’s correct: The commas mark off the country as parenthetical after the city within it to ensure that there is no ambiguity about which city is intended (i.e., not the one in Ontario, Canada).

Correct:

• Send your inquiries to 1385 Woodroffe Avenue, Ottawa, ON  K26 1V8.
• Why it’s correct: The commas mark off the larger geographical region in which the street is situated.

Correct:

• Please welcome Daria Rimini, RN, to the department.
• Why it’s correct: The commas mark off the person’s credentials as non-essential to her name rather than initials in her name.

Correct:

• Send your inquiries to Albert Irwin, Jr., at the email address below.
• Why it’s correct: The commas mark off the generational tag following the name.

Correct:

• You can always trust old George Wilson, Professor of English, to make a mountain of a molehill.
• Why it’s correct: The commas mark off the individual’s professional title following their name.

Correct:

• The awards for damages ranged anywhere from a token $4,882 to a whopping $13,945,718.
• Why it’s correct: The commas mark off every group of thousand (three digits) to help the reader quickly recognize the magnitude of the number without counting the number of digits.
• Exceptions: Don’t surround a year with commas if it follows only a month; use them only around years following a month and date. Also, drop the second comma if the larger geographical region is possessive in form.

Correct:

• Recording began in November 2005 and continued to February 2006.
• Why it’s correct: Commas are unnecessary in general two-part dates.

Correct:

• The charm of London, Ontario’s street buskers almost rivals that of its UK namesake.
• Why it’s correct: A comma following the possessive form of the larger geographical region would look even more awkward than this. Of course, the sentence could be reworded as “The street buskers’ charm in London, Ontario, almost . . . .”

• Return to Quick Rules: Commas
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Comma Rule 3.5: Put a comma between a signal phrase and a quotation.

Put commas between signal phrases and the quotations they introduce when the signal phrases end with a verb that gives rise to the quoted words or thoughts.

Correct:

• The chair of the meeting shouted, “We cannot proceed unless we have order.”
• Why it’s correct: A comma separates the signal phrase ending with a verb from the quotation it introduces.

Correct:

• “Stay the course,” the supervisor advised, “and you shall soon find success.”
• Why it’s correct: The parenthetical commas mark off the signal phrase interjected between quoted clauses.

Correct:

• You could tell she was thinking, “Is this guy for real?”
• Why it’s correct: A comma separates the signal phrase ending with a verb from the quotation it introduces even if the quotation is merely thought rather than said.
• Exception: A comma is unnecessary if the signal phrase ends with the restrictive relative pronoun that or the quotation is a phrase incorporated into the sentence rather than a sentence or clause on its own.

Correct:

• The customer service rep said that “The offer expired on August 23, not the 24th” and they have a “no exceptions” policy due to the perishable nature of the product.
• Why it’s correct: The signal phrase ends with the restrictive relative pronoun that, which a comma doesn’t follow but could replace, and “no exceptions is a phrase rather than a clause or sentence.

Correct:

• The customer service representative confirmed “August 23, not the 24” was the expiration date.
• Why it’s correct: No comma follows the signal phrase because the quotation is just a phrase excerpt rather than a clause or sentence.

• Return to Quick Rules: Commas
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Comma Rule 3.6: Don’t put commas around restrictive relative clauses (before that).

Don’t put a comma before a restrictive relative clause (e.g., beginning with the relative pronoun who or that) following a main clause.

Correct:

• The stocks that we all thought were going to offer the best returns are doing the worst.
• Why it’s correct: No commas surround the restrictive clause from “that” to “returns,” which is somewhat parenthetical in that the sentence could grammatically function without it (“The stocks are doing the worst”). However, this would be misleading because it implies that all the stocks are failing expectations, whereas the sentence focuses on only a subset. The vagueness resulting from omitting the restrictive clause proves that it is essential to the sentence’s clarity.

Correct:

• The students who presented first set the bar high for those who followed.
• Why it’s correct: No commas surround the restrictive clause from “who” to “first.” The clause is restrictive because it specifies a small group of students. Adding commas around the clause would make it non-restrictive (see Comma Rule 3.1 above) and would change the meaning of the sentence: it would mean that all the students presented first.

Correct:

• She didn’t say that we couldn’t work together.
• Why it’s correct: No comma precedes the restrictive clause beginning with “that.”

• Return to Quick Rules: Commas
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Comma Rule 3.7: Don’t put commas between subjects and their predicates.

Don’t put a comma between a clause’s subject (even if it’s a long one) and predicate (the main verb action) if there are no parenthetical elements between them.

Correct:

• Participants who quit smoking because of the new treatment option were twice as likely to remain smoke-free as those who quit cold turkey.
• Why it’s correct: No comma separates the subject “Participants who . . . option” from the predicate “were . . . turkey” even though the subject is quite long at ten words.
• Exception: Adding a pair of commas between the subject and predicate is acceptable when they are divided by an interjection. See the fourth and fifth correct examples illustrating Comma Rule 3.1).

• Return to Quick Rules: Commas
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Comma Rule 4.1: Put commas between each item in a series, including the last two items.

Put commas between each item in a series, including before the and or or that separates the second-to-last (a.k.a. penultimate) and last items, whether those items be words, phrases, or even clauses in a series.

Correct:

• NASA sent the space shuttles Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour on 135 orbital missions from 1982 to 2011.
• Why it’s correct: A comma follows each noun in a series up to the penultimate one before the and joining the last two.

Correct:

• I gave them the option of either researching the content, preparing the PowerPoint, or doing the actual presentation.
• Why it’s correct: A comma follows each participial phrase in a series up to the penultimate one before the or joining the last two.

Correct:

• The presenters rehearsed before Week 5, during Reading Week, and again after Week 7.
• Why it’s correct: A comma follows each prepositional phrase in a series up to the penultimate one before the and joining the last two.

Correct:

• Mick Jagger and Keith Richards set the stage for other singer-guitarist power duos like Robert Plant and Jimmy Page, Freddie Mercury and Brian May, Steven Tyler and Joe Perry, Axl Rose and Slash, and Anthony Kiedis and John Frusciante.
• Why it’s correct: A comma follows each compound noun phrase in a series up to the penultimate one before the and joining the last two pairs.

Correct:

• I can’t stand comma splices, you have no patience for run-ons, and she won’t tolerate sentence fragments.
• Why it’s correct: In a compound sentence containing three independent clauses, a comma follows each clause up to the penultimate one before the and joining the last two.

• Return to Quick Rules: Commas
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Comma Rule 4.2: Put commas between two or more coordinate adjectives.

Put commas between two or more coordinate adjectives that refer to the same noun. Coordinate adjectives are those stacked in front of a noun in no particular order to describe the noun in multiple ways. You can tell that they’re coordinate adjectives if you can (1) change their order and (2) add and between each without changing the meaning either way.

Correct:

• The new hires turned out to be dedicated, ambitious employees.
• Why it’s correct: Both adjectives, “dedicated” and “ambitious,” describe the noun “employees” in no particular order, and you can replace the comma with an and to make “. . . dedicated and ambitious employees.”

Correct:

• Would you like a nice, new, clean, dry diaper?
• Why it’s correct: All four coordinate adjectives describe the noun “diaper” in no particular order.

Correct:

• The incessant, thunderous drum beat changed the rhythm of their hearts.
• Why it’s correct: The comma goes between “incessant” and “thunderous” because they are coordinate. The comma doesn’t go between “thunderous” and “drum” because they are non-coordinate in that you can’t change their order and add and between them without changing the meaning.

Correct:

• Use SMS for brief, fast text message exchanges.
• Why it’s correct: The comma goes between “brief” and “fast” because they are coordinate. The comma doesn’t go after “fast,” “text,” or “message” because they are non-coordinate in that you can’t change their order and add and between them without changing the meaning.

• Return to Quick Rules: Commas
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Comma Rule 4.3: Don’t put a comma after the final coordinate adjective.

Don’t put a comma after the second of two (or third of three, etc.) coordinate adjectives—i.e., between the final coordinate adjective and the noun it describes. See Comma Rule 4.2 above for a further explanation of coordinate vs. non-coordinate adjectives.

• Return to Quick Rules: Commas
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Comma Rule 4.4: Don’t put a comma between non-coordinate adjectives.

Don’t put commas between non-coordinate adjectives—that is, between adjectives that are in a fixed order before the noun they modify and cannot have and added between them without changing the meaning of the sentence. See Comma Rule 4.2 above for a further explanation of coordinate vs. non-coordinate adjectives.4

Comma Rule 4.5: Don’t put commas between two coordinate nouns or verbs.

Don’t put commas between two nouns (or noun phrases) or verbs (or verb phrases) joined by the coordinating conjunction and in a compound subject, predicate, or object.

Return to Quick Rules: Commas

Apostrophe Rule 1.1: Put an apostrophe before the s ending a singular possessive noun.

Put an apostrophe before the s added to the end of a singular noun when the noun or noun phrase following belongs to the noun preceding it. In the case of joint ownership in compound nouns (when two or more nouns have joint possession of the noun following), the apostrophe-s goes only at the end of the second or final noun.

Correct:

• Have you heard the story of Albert Einstein’s brain?
• Why it’s correct: The brain belongs to Einstein (singular), so the apostrophe and s indicate possession.

Correct:

• Grace Jones’s formidable presence in 1985’s A View to a Kill electrified audiences.
• Why it’s correct: The “formidable presence” belongs to Grace Jones. Though her name ends with an s, she is grammatically singular and therefore receives an apostrophe and s just like any other singular noun. The apostrophe and s are also added to the end of years to indicate that the noun following (in this case a James Bond film) occurred in that year.

Correct:

• I’ve always heeded my brother-in-law’s financial advice.
• Why it’s correct: The apostrophe and s are added to the end of a compound noun.

Correct:

• Reznor and Ross’s first soundtrack won a 2010 Oscar for Best Original Score.
• Why it’s correct: The apostrophe and s are added to the end of the final noun in cases of joint possession. Saying “Reznor’s and Ross’s first soundtrack” would refer to solo soundtracks by each.

• Return to Quick Rules: Apostrophes
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Apostrophe Rule 2.1: Put an apostrophe after the s ending a plural possessive noun.

Put an apostrophe after the s at the end of a plural noun (a noun of two or more people, places, or things) when the noun or noun phrase following belongs to it.

Correct:

• The two companies’ merger was finalized last month.
• Why it’s correct: The apostrophe goes at the end of the plural noun “companies” to indicate that the noun following (“merger”) belonged to both.

Correct:

• The Joneses’ family tradition includes rescuing ancient artifacts from dastardly villains.
• Why it’s correct: The apostrophe is added to the end of “Joneses,” the plural of the surname “Jones,” meaning each individual Jones family member is in joint possession of the noun phrase following (“family tradition”).

Correct:

• I listed having had three years’ experience in C++ coding on my résumé.
• Why it’s correct: The apostrophe comes at the end of the plural “years” to indicate that the noun following happened in those years. This is a more concise alternative to saying “three years of experience.”
• Exception: When the plural form of the noun is irregular in that it doesn’t end in s (e.g., “feet,” “children,” “men,” “mice,” “teeth”), use the singular possessive apostrophe-s.

Correct:

• Can you please point me to the men’s room?
• Why it’s correct: The singular possessive apostrophe-s form is added to the end of an irregular plural noun that doesn’t end in s to indicate possession.

• Return to Quick Rules: Apostrophes
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Apostrophe Rule 2.2: Don’t put an apostrophe before the s ending a non-possessive plural decade

Don’t put an apostrophe between the 0 and s when writing a plural decade that’s not possessive (e.g., 1990s). Put an apostrophe at the end only if the decade is in possession of the noun or noun phrase following.

Correct:

• The 1980s’ main contribution to popular music was excessive cheesy synthesizers.
• Why it’s correct: The apostrophe follows the plural decade, (meaning everything that happened from January 1, 1981, to December 31^st, 1990) to show possession of the noun phrase “main contribution.” You could also say, “The main contribution of the 1980s to popular music was . . . .”

Correct:

• 1980’s Academy Award for Best Picture went to Ordinary People.
• Why it’s correct: The apostrophe precedes the s to mean that the event following happened in the year 1980.

• Return to Quick Rules: Apostrophes
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Apostrophe Rule 3: Put an apostrophe where letters are omitted in contractions.

Put an apostrophe wherever letters and characters (including spaces) have been omitted in contractions. Contractions are two (sometimes more) words combined into one word to represent the way they’re often said quickly as one word in informal speech. In the examples below, the contractions would be incorrect if formal writing were expected by the audience but are correct as informal writing.

Correct:

• There’s going to be a huge reckoning when markets adjust, and it won’t be pretty.
• Why it’s correct: The first apostrophes replace the omitted i in “There is” and the second for the o in “will not”)

Correct:

• I woudn’t’ve have said that if I knew you were sensitive about your nose.
• Why it’s correct: The apostrophes replace the omitted o and a in the three-word phrase “would not have” contracted into one word.

Correct:

• She’s been bangin’ out hit records since the ’70s.
• Why it’s correct: The apostrophes replace the omitted space and ha in “She has,” final g in “banging,” and 19 in “1970s.”

Correct:

• It’s a pretty bad cold, sure, but ’sbeen a while and ’tis the season, as they say.
• Why it’s correct: The apostrophes replace the omitted space and i in the contraction for “It is,” it ha in “it has been,” and first i in “it is.”
• Exceptions: Many contractions at the far end of informality typically omit even contractions.

Correct:

• I’m gonna get me a cold beer when this shift’s over.
• Why it’s correct: The first apostrophe replaces the omitted space and a in “I am,” and the second replaces the space and i in “shift is.” As a convention in the writing of gonna as a contraction of “going to,” apostrophes aren’t used to replace the omitted i, g, t, and o.

• Return to Quick Rules: Apostrophes
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Apostrophe Rule 4: Put an apostrophe before a plural s following single letters.

Put an apostrophe wherever adding an s to make a simple plural would be confusing, such as pluralizing a single letter.

Correct:

• As my mom always said, “Mind your p’s and q’s, dot your i’s, and cross your t’s.”
• Why it’s correct: The apostrophes help form the plurals of the lowercase letters when they would otherwise look confusing as “ps” and “qs,” or ambiguous as “is.”

Correct:

• I’m aiming for straight A’s this semester.
• Why it’s correct: The apostrophe helps form the plural of the uppercase letters when it would otherwise look ambiguous as “As.”

Return to Quick Rules: Apostrophes

Colon Rule 1.1: Put a colon at the end of a clause or phrase introducing a list.

Put colon after a clause or phrase that introduces a list formatted either as a series separated by commas in the sentence or a bulleted or numbered stack down the page.

Correct:

• We’re going to need some branded stationery: business cards for all associates, letterhead and memo templates, post-it notes, pens, and USB sticks.
• Why it’s correct: The colon ends an independent clause (complete with a subject and predicate) that introduces a list arranged within the sentence.

Correct:

To find the date of a webpage that doesn’t otherwise have one:

1. 1. Type “inurl:” into the Google Search field, then copy and paste the URL of the webpage whose date you’re looking for immediately after it
   2. Hit Enter and add “&as_qdr=y15” to the end of the search result URL in the address bar above the results page, which should show the title of the webpage whose date you’re looking for, but without the date yet
   3. Hit Enter again and you’ll see the date appear in grey font below the webpage title in the updated results list

Why it’s correct: The colon ends an infinitive phrase that, as a dependent clause, is completed by each imperative sentence in the numbered list of procedural steps arranged down the page.

• Return to Quick Rules: Colons
• Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section

Colon Rule 1.2: Put a colon at the end of an opening salutation in formal emails and letters.

Put a colon at the end of the opening salutation line where you address the recipient by name at the opening of a formal email or letter. In a semiformal email, a comma at the end of the salutation is fine. If an email is formal, however, a comma follows the greeting word (e.g., Hello) and the colon follows the recipient’s name.

Correct:

• Greetings, Greta:
• Why it’s correct: The colon following the semiformal email’s opening salutation cues the recipient (Greta) to read the message following it.

Correct:

• Dear Mrs. Jackson:
• Why it’s correct: The colon following the formal letter’s opening salutation cues the recipient (Mrs. Jackson) to read the message following it.
• Exception: In an informal message, a comma following the recipient’s name (but not the greeting word) strikes a more casual tone in the opening salutation.

Correct:

• Hi Hank,
• Why it’s correct: The comma following the informal message’s opening salutation cues the recipient (Hank) to read the message following it.

• Return to Quick Rules: Colons
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Colon Rule 2.1: Put a colon between an explanation and its introductory independent clause.

Put colon after an independent clause followed by a statement that explains in further detail what the introductory clause states in general. An independent clause is one that can stand on its own as a sentence beginning with a capital and ending with a period because it expresses a complete thought with a subject (doer) and a predicate (action; see §4.3.1). This colon usually stands for the causal transition phrase “—that is, . . . .”

Correct:

• Imagining the colon elongating into an equals sign (=) is a useful way to remember what it does: equate information on either side of it.
• Why it’s correct: The independent clause ends with a colon and the verb phrase following explains what “does” means. Since the material to the right of the colon is a verb phrase rather than a complete sentence, the e in “equate” remains lowercase.

• Return to Quick Rules: Colons
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Colon Rule 2.2: Put a colon between a quotation and its introductory independent clause if the latter is a complete sentence.

Put a colon after an independent clause that introduces a quotation. Like the clause followed by an explanation in Colon Rule 2.1 above, it must be a complete clause that can stand on its own before the colon and quotation.

Correct:

• The first joke he told was a groaner of the highest order: “What did the fish say when you put him in his tank? . . . ‘Hey, how do you drive this thing?’”
• Why it’s correct: The quotation is introduced by an independent clause that ends with a colon, whereas a signal phrase that ends with a verb such as “said” is followed by a comma.

• Return to Quick Rules: Colons
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Colon Rule 2.3: Don’t put a colon before an explanation or quotation preceded by a fragment.

Don’t put a colon before an explanation or list if the clause that precedes it is not an independent one—that is, if it cannot stand on its own as a sentence.

• Return to Quick Rules: Colons
• Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section

Colon Rule 3.1: Put a colon between a main title and its subtitle.

Correct:

• The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man.
• Why it’s correct: The colon separates main title from subtitle.

• Return to Quick Rules: Colons
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Colon Rule 3.2: Put a colon between publisher locations and names in bibliographical references.

Put a colon between the location and company name of a publisher in APA References.

Correct:

• Toronto: ECW.
• Why it’s correct: The colon separates location and publisher.

• Return to Quick Rules: Colons
• Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section

Colon Rule 3.3: Put a colon between numbers in ratios and times.

Put a colon between numbers in mathematical ratios and to separate hours, minutes, and seconds when indicating time.

Correct:

• A globe scaled 1:50,220,000 (or 790 miles to the inch) is one you can grip in the palm of your hand.
• Why it’s correct: The ratio colon indicates the relative size difference between the model (given as 1 here) and the real thing, which in this case is over fifty million times bigger than the model.

Correct:

• Clocking in at 3:24:56, that film was three hours, twenty-four minutes, and fifty-six seconds too long.
• Why it’s correct: The colons divide units of time into hours, minutes, and seconds. After seconds, decimal-periods are used for fractions of seconds.

Return to Quick Rules: Colons

Semicolon Rule 1: Put a semicolon between related independent clauses to make a compound sentence.

Put a semicolon between independent clauses whose content is so closely related that it makes sense to keep them in the same sentence, though they have different grammatical subjects (doers of the action). An independent clause is one that can stand on its own as a complete sentence because it has a subject (doer) and predicate (action) (see §4.3.1). A compound sentence joins two independent clauses either with a comma and coordinating conjunction (and, but, so, etc.; see Table 4.3.2a) or with a semicolon. Doing neither would make a run-on sentence, and using only a comma between the clauses would make a comma splice. Use a semicolon in compound sentences where none of the seven coordinating conjunctions is appropriate to use or where you need to be as concise as possible and can do without the conjunction without sacrificing clarity.

Correct:

• The new website is nearly ready to launch; we just need to set some SEO controls and publish it.
• Why it’s correct: The semicolon joins the independent clause beginning with the subject “The new website” and the other with the subject “we.” Both could stand on their own as sentences but are closely related enough to be in the same sentence.

• Return to Quick Rules: Semicolons
• Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section

Semicolon Rule 2: Put a semicolon between sub-lists in a series of lists in a sentence.

Use semicolons as a “super comma” between groups of items in a long list of items arranged in a sentence.

Correct:

• Please send T4s to Brenda, Albert, and Joan in Accounting; Jeremy, Lorraine, and Drew in Marketing; and Jasmine, Lily, and Alphonso in Legal.
• Why it’s correct: The semicolon acts as a “super comma” that separates three sub-lists of three employees each according to their respective department in an office.

• Return to Quick Rules: Semicolons
• Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section

Semicolon Rule 3: Don’t put a semicolon where a colon should be used.

Don’t use semicolons as if they were interchangeable with colons. They are different punctuation marks performing different functions. Review the semicolon rules above and compare with §5.3.3 on uses for colons.

Return to Quick Rules: Semicolons

Parentheses Rule 1.1: Put parentheses around qualifying interjections of lesser importance within and between sentences.

Use parentheses around interjections within a sentence where using parenthetical commas would lead to confusion. You can also use parentheses around an entire sentence that offers an aside that helps explain something said in the sentence previous. Parentheses always come in pairs: an opening parenthesis signals the beginning of an interjection of lesser importance, and a closing parenthesis signals the return to the sentence proper. When used around an entire sentence, the closing parenthesis goes after the sentence-ending period; otherwise, it goes before.

Correct:

• We called pest control to get our office back from the vermin (silverfish, mites, house flies, fruit flies, and spiders) that seem to have taken up residency this past year.
• Why it’s correct: The parentheses mark off a list that digresses from the main point of the sentence with a series of illustrative examples. Parentheses are a better alternative to parenthetical commas because they would confuse the reader with two different types of commas: parenthetical and series.

Correct:

• I’ve come around in my opinion of the common house centipede. (I used to squash them at first sight.) It turns out that they’re effective pest control agents themselves.
• Why it’s correct: The parentheses mark off a whole sentence as a slightly digressive aside interrupting the flow of the main point.

• Return to Quick Rules: Parentheses
• Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section

Parentheses Rule 1.2: Don’t use parentheses where parenthetical commas would do.

Don’t overuse parentheses, especially where parenthetical commas would be more appropriate. Recall that, according to Comma Rule 3.1, commas can surround parenthetical, non-essential words, phrases, and clauses added to explain immediately what came before. Whether you use commas or parentheses, the sentence must make grammatical sense without the interjected element. The problem with overusing parentheses, however, is that it clutters up your writing with distracting asides, so the less conspicuous comma is preferable in situations where a parenthetical element doesn’t need full parentheses.

• Return to Quick Rules: Parentheses
• Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section

Parentheses Rule 2: Put parentheses around in-text citations crediting research sources in APA and MLA documentation styles.

Correct:

• Others argue that “text neck” is neither a true epidemic nor even a true ailment (Skwarecki, 2018), just as “book neck” was never a condition that concerned anyone.
• Why it’s correct: The parentheses mark off an APA-style in-text citation.

Return to Quick Rules: Parentheses

Brackets Rule 1.1: Put brackets around changes or additions to the wording of quotations.

Correct:

• The president tweeted that “All of the phony T.V. commercials against [him were] bought and payed [sic] for by SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS.”
• Why it’s correct: The first brackets change the original “me are” to “him were” to be consistent with the third-person orientation and past-tense verb in the signal phrase. The bracketed “[sic]” indicates that the quotation’s spelling mistake was in the original source and intentionally kept rather than introduced by the writer when repeating the quotation.

• Return to Quick Rules: Brackets
• Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section

Brackets Rule 1.2: Don’t put brackets around what should have parentheses.

• Return to Quick Rules: Brackets
• Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section

Brackets Rule 2: Put brackets around parenthetical elements within parentheses.

Use brackets whenever you have parenthetical elements within a phrase or clause that is already surrounded by parentheses.

Correct:

• Though “text neck” is controversial (some argue that it was only ever a chiropractors’ marketing gimmick [Skwarecki, 2018]), it makes sense that neck strain sustained for several hours daily harms our musculoskeletal health.
• Why it’s correct: The brackets mark off an in-text citation within a parenthetical statement. If not within parentheses, the citation would be framed by parentheses instead of brackets.

• Return to Quick Rules: Brackets
• Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section

Brackets Rule 3: Put brackets around IEEE-style numerical in-text citations crediting research sources.

Correct:

• Physiopedia recommends holding up your mobile device so that it’s level with your eyes and avoiding “prolonged static postures” [4].
• Why it’s correct: The brackets mark off an IEEE-style numerical in-text citation.

Return to Quick Rules: Brackets

5.3.8.1: Compound-modifier Hyphens

The most common use of hyphens is for compound modifiers—that is, two or more adjectives that must be read in combination before a noun they describe. In fact, the hyphen you see between “compound” and “modifier” in the sentence above exemplifies how this works: since both of those words together (and in that order only) modify the noun “hyphen” (“modify” meaning that they tell you what kind of hyphen it is), the hyphen helps the reader identify which words functions as modifiers and which as nouns, since “modifier” in this case behaves as an adjective rather than a noun. Without the hyphen, the reader might make the mistake of taking “modifier hyphen” as a compound noun, as in the case of “small business owners” above.

If you were to say that the USSR was the first second world country to de-communize, the combination “first second” would surely trip up the reader. But pairing “second” and “world” with a hyphen resolves the ambiguity to say “The USSR was the first second-world country to de-communize.”

Table 5.3.8.1a: Common First-term Nouns in Compound Modifiers

Noun	Examples	Not Following a Noun
bottom- or top-	bottom-feeding fish top-shelf liquor top-tier player	Those fish are bottom feeding. All your liquor is top-shelf. The players we churn out are all top-tier.
high- or low-	high-calibre bullet low-cost solution high-fidelity sound low-life criminal high-quality products low-resolution screen	Most of the bullets found were high calibre. Let’s find a solution that’s low-cost. I want a sound that’s more high fidelity. He is a total low-life. We ship products that are mostly high quality. Don’t use pictures with low resolution.
self-	self-driven woman self-inflicted wound self-motivated boy self-taught pilot	She is very self-driven. We don’t treat wounds that are self-inflicted. He is not self-motivated enough. I am totally self-taught.
well-	well-known solution well-thought-out plan well-trained army well-written letter	The solution is very well known. My plan is very well thought out. We’re no match for an army so well trained. Only send the letter if it is well written.

Table 5.3.8.1b: Common Adverbs in Compound Modifiers

Noun	Examples	Not Following a Noun
fast- or slow-	Fast-moving process Slow-motion replay	The process is fast-moving after that. Let’s review the goal in slow motion.
well-	well-chosen words well-known solution well-thought-out plan well-trained army well-written letter	Your words were all well-chosen. The solution is very well known. My plan is very well thought out. We’re no match for an army so well trained. Only send the letter if it is well written.

Exception: Don’t add hyphens after adverbs ending in -ly.

Table 5.3.8.1c: Common Prefixes Making Compound Modifiers

Prefix	Examples	Not Following a Noun
all-	all-inclusive resort all-powerful tech giant all-out offensive	Let’s just go to an all-inclusive. Google’s dominance has made it all-powerful. We sent everyone so our offensive was all-out.

Table 5.3.8.1d: Common Middle-term Prepositions in Three-part Compound Modifiers

Preposition	Examples	Without a Noun Following
-at-	Stay-at-home mom	You work and I’ll just stay at home.
-by-	case-by-case basis six-by-six rule	We’re just taking it case by case. Follow the rule called “six by six”
-for-	word-for-word translation	Don’t copy word for word.
-of-	Cost-of-living index Out-of-province funding	The cost of living is always rising. The funding came from out of province.
-on-	one-on-one game	Let’s play one on one.
-to-	Back-to-back classes business-to-business retailer coast-to-coast flight easy-to-follow presentation up-to-date calendar	My two classes today are back to back. Our sales are B2B (business to business). I’m flying coast to coast tonight. Your presentation was very easy to follow. My calendar is all up to date.

Table 5.3.8.1e: Common Three-part Compound-modifier Phrases

Examples	Without a Noun Following
Long-drawn-out affair	The affairs would all be long drawn out.
Off-the-charts happiness	I wish you happiness that is totally off the charts.
On-the-job training	All of the training will be done on the job.

Table 5.3.8.1f: Common Foreign-phrase Compound Modifiers

Examples	Without a Noun Following
Avant-garde filmmaker	His latest film is more avant garde.
Laissez-faire capitalism	Our approach is fairly laissez faire.

Don’t hyphenate more recently imported foreign phrases that are still italicized.

Table 5.3.8.1g: Common End-term Nouns in Compound Modifiers

Noun	Examples	Without a Noun Following
-class	first-class cabin second-class citizen economy-class seating	I’m going first class. They treated me like I was second class. We bought economy class.
-degree	first-degree burns	I had burns in only the first degree.
-interest	Special-interest groups	All of those groups are special interest.
-ready	Game-ready athlete Job-ready graduate	All of our kids are game-ready. My training makes me fully job-ready.
-scale	Large-scale project	I’ve never done a project this large scale.
-time	full-time job half-time show part-time employment	She works full time. Let’s talk about it at half time. We work part time on weekends.

Table 5.3.8.1h: Common Past-participles Following Nouns

Past Participle	Examples	Not Following the Noun
-based	evidence-based treatment faith-based reasoning	The treatment is evidence-based. The programming is all faith-based.
-bodied	Able-bodied teenager	You’re able-bodied enough.
-capped	Snow-capped mountains	The mountains are nicely snow-capped.
-edged	double-edged sword	That sword is doubled edged.
-eyed	cross-eyed goofball	She went cross-eyed after a mule kick.
-faced	Two-faced charlatan	That guy is so two-faced.
-filled	garbage-filled bins	Those bins are all garbage filled.
-focused	solution-focused apology	The apology was solution focused.
-footed	Fleet-footed deliverer	The delivery man is fleet-footed.
-handed	Left-handed writer Right-handed stick Short-handed goal	We want a writer who is left handed. Pass me a stick that’s right handed. The goal was short-handed.
-oriented	audience-oriented writing client-oriented response	The writing is more audience-oriented. Make it more client-oriented.
-sided	many-sided issue eight-sided dice	The issue is many sided. This dice is eight-sided.
-willed	Strong-willed daughter	My daughter sure is strong-willed.

Table 5.3.8.1i: Common End-term Present-participle and Gerund Compound-modifier Adjectives

Present Participle	Examples	Not Following the Noun
-bearing	child-bearing hips load-bearing walls	These hips are child-bearing. Don’t remove walls that are load bearing.
-ending	never-ending happiness	I hope your happiness is never ending.
-jerking	Tear-jerking performance	The performance was tear-jerking.
-making	decision-making process	I’m good at decision making.
-sharing	profit-sharing plan	Profit sharing is a strong incentive.
-solving	problem-solving skills	My best skill is problem solving.
-sounding	Odd-sounding name	Their names are all odd sounding.
-speaking	English-speaking world French-speaking politician	Those areas are English-speaking.
-talking	Smooth-talking sales rep	He was fairly smooth-talking.
-wrenching	Gut-wrenching scene	The scene was so gut-wrenching.

Table 5.3.8.1j: Common End-term Preposition Compound-modifier Adjectives

Preposition	Examples	Not Following the Noun
-after	sought-after jobs	These jobs are highly sought-after.
-by	drive-by shooting	Last night’s shooting was a drive-by.
-down	Trickle-down economics	That wealth didn’t quite trickle down.
-out	All-out war	The war went all-out after a year.
-up	made-up names built-up neighbourhood	Those names sound so made up. The area is more built up now.

Table 5.3.8.1k: Common Number + Time-period Compound Modifiers

Duration	Examples	Not Following the Noun
-day	Five-day trial period	The trial period lasts five days.
-hour	Eleventh-hour bid	The bid came in the eleventh hour.
-minute	25-minute presentation	The presentation lasted 25 minutes.
-month	Ten-month term	The term ends after ten months.
-second	Nine-second sprint	He finished in under ten seconds.
-week	32-week co-op term	The co-op term is 32 weeks.
-year	Four-year degree program	An applied degree takes four years.

The second second-rate actor	the director wanted the second actor to be second rate
The film’s 15-week run shattered box-office records	The film shattered box-office records with its run of 15 weeks
Two-way street	that street goes two ways
After-tax income	Our income after taxes is laughable.
Duty-free goods
First-come-first-served basis
Garbage-filled streets
Gut-wrenching scene
Large-scale development
Many-sided issue
Mountain-climbing enthusiast
Odd-sounding name
One-trick pony	This pony has only one trick
one-sentence paragraph	That paragraph only has one sentence.
Out-of-province funding	We went out of province for our funding.
Pay-as-you-go plan	We selected a plan that would have us pay as we go.
Quick-witted lady
Short-handed goal
Smooth-talking salesman
Snow-capped mountains
Soon-to-be graduate
Strong-willed grandma
Two-faced charlatan
Tax-exempt services
Tear-jerking performance
Time-consuming activity
Trickle-down economics	Claiming that wealth will trickle down is irresponsible.
User-friendly design
Would-be writer

But some have become one word, like handwritten and handmade, standalone

Compound Adjectival Numbers

Two-thirds majority	two thirds of the respondents
Two-year-old child	the child is two years old
I’ve got ninety-nine problems, and grammar ain’t one.	Pass the puck to number ninety-nine.

Suspended Hyphens

The 12- and 13-year-old kids	the kids are 12 and 13 years old
The well-known and -loved song	the song became well known and loved
How to treat first-, second-, and third-degree burns	the burns were first, second, and third degree
Funding for medium- to large-scale businesses
Scores in the six- to seven-point range

Prefixes

• Big hair in the mid-1980s
• Populism results in new accusations of anti-Americanism (because “America” is capitalized)
• My ex-girlfriend and I haven’t spoken in a decade
• I re-wrote the essay
• e-mail
• Not with adverbs ending in -ly

Compound Nouns

Again, anything starting with “self-” (e.g., self-starter, self-esteem, self-care), “great-” (e.g., great-grandmother, great-uncle), or ending with “-in-law” (e.g., mother-in-law, sister-in-law) and numbers above 20 (twenty-one, forty-three). If someone said that you have poor people skills, does that mean you have skill in dealing with poor people? By hyphenating “people-skills,” they make it clear that you could be better at dealing with people in general.

Table 5.3.8.2a: Common Compound Units of Measurement

Unit	Examples	Not Following a Noun
-hours	Kilowatt-hours Work-hours	I’ve racked up a few kilowatt-hours this winter. This project should take about 20 work-hours.
-miles	air-miles	Do you collect air-miles?
-year	light-year	The next star is about _ light-years away.

Table 5.3.8.2b: Common Prefixes Making Compound Nouns

Prefix	Examples	Not Following a Noun
all-	all-inclusive resort all-powerful tech giant all-out offensive	Let’s just go to an all-inclusive. Google’s dominance has made it all-powerful. We sent everyone so our offensive was all-out.
ex-	ex-girlfriend ex-parrot ex-premier Harcourt	I haven’t talked to my ex-girlfriend in ten years. That bird is dead. It is an ex-parrot. The ex-premier will be meeting with us today.
self-	self-control self-loathing	I’m exercising some self-control here. I follow up my dessert with a little self-loathing

Table 5.3.8.2c: Common Three- or Four-term Compound Nouns

Compound Noun	Plural
forget-me-not	forget-me-nots
Jack-of-all-trades	Jacks-of-all-trades
mother-in-law father-in-law	mothers-in-law fathers-in-law
Ne’er-do-well	Ne’er-do-wells
Stick-in-the-mud	sticks-in-the-mud
Writer-in-residence	writers-in-residence

Box-office	box-offices
Fixer-upper	fixer-uppers
Great-grandfather	Great-grandfathers
Court-martial	courts-martial
Vice-president	vice-presidents
Tractor-trailer	tractor-trailers
Cabinet-maker	cabinet-makers
Singer-songwriter	singer-songwriters
City-state	city-states
A has-been	has-beens
Sing-along	sing-alongs

Some words have become one word like headache, checkout, chequebook, uproar, downpour, input, sunrise, clearinghouse, bookkeeper, housekeeper, sightseeing, shipbuilding, cabinetmaker, blackboard, redhead, workplace, and even email

• Capstone Editing – How to Hyphenate a Compound Noun

Compound Verbs

Usually pairing a noun with a verb, but some are now combined into one word.

With hyphens	One-word compounds	Two words (verb + preposition)
to air-condition to baby-sit to colour-code to copy-edit to double-check to double-click to dry-clean to Google-search to hand-wash to ice-skate to proof-edit to reverse-engineer to second-guess to spot-check to test-drive to window-shop	to downgrade to ghostwrite to handpick to handwrite to multitask to proofread to shortchange to troubleshoot to waterproof to whitewash	To check out To log in To step up

Source: Grammar Usage – Compound Verbs (Jamieson, 2010)