Buddhism (~500 BCE)

Buddhism was founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), a hermit and spiritual leader. According to legend, Siddhartha was a prince who gave up his luxurious life to follow a path of enlightenment and teach others to do the same (Mikulas, 2007). His teachings spread across Asia, and Buddhism became one of the biggest religions in the world. The religion’s followers believe that in order to reach nirvana (true enlightenment), they must overcome the suffering of human life. Buddhism is one of the religions most closely related to psychology, as the Buddha’s teachings toward reaching enlightenment are heavily concerned with alleviating human suffering and understanding the nature of human beings. 

The Four Noble Truths

The core teachings of Buddhism are summarized by the Four Noble Truths. In Buddhism, all other ideas and concepts originate from these teachings. The first truth postulates that all beings suffer. There are three types of ‘human’ suffering: all-pervasive suffering, the suffering of change, and the suffering of suffering. All-pervasive suffering refers to the fact that existence is intrinsically associated with suffering that is caused by a lack of understanding of the true nature of reality (ignorance). The suffering of change reflects the concept of impermanence–that everything is continuously changing from moment to moment–and this type of suffering results from the fact that everything is temporary, including pleasurable things. Lastly, the suffering of suffering refers to anything that causes suffering, such as physical pain, psychological distress, illness, etc. The second truth expands on the first to state that there is a cause for suffering. The third truth is that cessation of suffering is possible. The Buddha posits that the ultimate cause of all suffering is craving for, desire for, and attachment to things that bring pleasure or improve one’s situation. The cessation of suffering occurs when one reaches enlightenment, which involves non-attachment, the accumulation of wisdom, and an understanding of the true nature of reality. The fourth noble truth is that there is a path that leads to the cessation of suffering (enlightenment), and that path is the Noble Eightfold Path.

“Whoever is overcome by this wretched and sticky craving, his sorrows grow like grass after the rains. ( Dhammapada, 24, 335; Buddharakkhita 1986, p. 113)”

“Just as a tree, though cut down, sprouts up again if its roots remain uncut and firm, even so, until the craving that lies dormant is rooted out, suffering springs up again and again. ( Dhammapada, 24, 338; Buddharakkhita 1986, p. 133)”

Quotes taken from: https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/dhp/dhp.08.budd.html

The Noble Eightfold Path

The purpose of the Noble Eightfold Path is to change one’s patterns of thoughts, emotions, and behaviour in order to improve one’s psychological well-being. The eightfold path is also referred to as the middle way because it represents a balance between the extremes of self-indulgence (e.g., greed) and self-denial (e.g., self-punishment). The eightfold path comprises eight elements: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. Right view is seeing and understanding the world clearly, which involves understanding the four noble truths, and understanding that our actions have consequences. Right intention refers to our thoughts and the mental energy that controls our behaviour. There are three types of right intention: renunciation, the letting go of desire; intention of good will, the letting go of anger; and intention of harmlessness, i.e., avoidance of harm toward others and ourselves. Right speech is communication in ways that are encouraging, kind, helpful, constructive, supportive, and honest, which includes being silent when it is not appropriate or helpful to speak. Right action is behaving in ways that avoid harm and are based on generosity, kindness, and compassion. Right livelihood refers to making a living in a way that is meaningful, consistent with one’s values, and ethical. Right effort involves a balance between persistence in difficult situations and knowing when to let go and accept what is. Right effort relies on remembering past actions that were helpful and those that were harmful and behaving accordingly. Right mindfulness is being grounded in the present moment and letting go of worries. Finally, right concentration is focusing one’s attention on activities that are ethical and wholesome. When our attention is focused on what we are doing, we become more absorbed and engaged in that activity, which is associated with relaxation. By following the eightfold path, one can reduce suffering in order to lead a more meaningful and enriching life.

Buddhism and Psychology (**SC)

Written by: Fermin Retnavarathan

Buddhist teachings and practices guide the religion’s followers to understand the sources of true well-being, one of them a healthy mental state (Vithanapathirana, 2013). Buddhism encourages maintaining a healthy mental state by treating mental disorders and preventing them (de Silva, 1993).  Maintenance practices include protecting one’s mental health and developing one’s own mental capacity. Similar to these Buddhist ideas, modern psychological therapies have moved away from the old practices of simply treating mental illness, and now have developed methods to prevent mental illness through the nurturance and maintenance of a healthy mental state.

In order to protect one’s mental health, Buddhism advocates seeing the individual as an agent of change rather than looking at them as a receiver of interventions (de Silva, 2000). Therefore, the individual must take a leading role in their self-improvement. One therapeutic strategy includes following the Noble Eightfold Path, as outlined above, where the individual aims to restore emotional balance (Vithanapathirana, 2013). Buddhism teaches the importance of maintaining balance to promote a healthy mental state. A method to maintain attentional balance is through practising breathing techniques. The individual ground their attention on their breathing, allowing them to find focus (de Silva, 2000). In modern therapies, breathing techniques help individuals experiencing negative emotional states, such as anxiety and panic attacks, to decrease their symptoms.

To promote the development of one’s mental capacity, Buddhist teachings encourage meditation (Vithanapathirana, 2013). In Buddhism, meditation is used as a form of escapism and allows the individual to be absorbed in thought. Mindfulness meditation is used as a modern technique that has been shown to significantly improve the mental states of individuals with anxiety and depression. The Buddhist therapeutic techniques described mirror those used in cognitive and behavioural psychology today, such as self-monitoring, stimulus control, and behaviour-change programs. Similar to the modern therapeutic practices recommended to individuals today, Buddhist teachings encourage a lifelong attempt of training one’s mind.

Ultimately, Buddhist strategies aim to lead individuals to ultimate psychological contentment, and the widespread use of Buddhist techniques today proves the lasting influence of Buddhism on modern-day psychology.

References

Fan, W. (2017). On recognition and self: a discussion based on Nyāya, Mīmāṃsā and Buddhism. Asian Philosophy, 27, 292–308.

Laumakis, S. J. (2008). An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy. Cambridge, UK. Cambridge University Press.

Vithanapathirana, M. (2013). Critical psychology in Sri Lanka: The Buddhist perspective. Annual Review of Critical Psychology, 10, 870-885.

Contributors

• Faheel Ahmed
• Supriya Bains
• Peter Liu

Hinduism (~ 2000 BCE)

Hinduism is the world’s oldest religion, forming as a result of various beliefs and cultural influences of the different peoples living in India. Hinduism recognizes the concept of “the self”, which states that human consciousness is separate from the body, but resides in it (Marwaha, 2006). This Hindu belief is related to Cartesian mind-body dualism, and relates to the everlasting research in psychology on human consciousness.

In the article, “On recognition and self: A discussion based on Nyāya, Mīmāṃsā and Buddhism”, Wenli Fan examines the issue of the existence of a permanent self. Specifically, Fan discusses the arguments posed by the Hindu tradition and the counter-arguments presented in the Buddhist tradition. Hinduism contended that there exists a permanent self, whereas Buddhism held the opposite view, which is the view of ‘no-self’, or anātman. In order to defend their position, Hindu schools of thought, particularly the Nyāya school, referred to the process of recognition, postulating that without a fixed self, recognition would not be possible. Buddhist thought, on the other hand, presented explanations arguing that a self is not in fact necessary for this occurrence. The author focuses on the Hindu and Buddhist arguments of memory and self-recognition, the two sub-components of recognition as they were employed in support of the broader argument (i.e., self vs no-self).

In addition to the belief in the existence of the self, the Nyāya school maintained that the self is distinct from consciousness and that the self is the agent that performs all human activities. The Vātsyāyana and Uddyotakara schools provided further explanations of how certain human activities are evidence of the existence of the self. For example, they explained that for one to have desire for an object, they must first have a cognition of that object, experience pleasure as a result of it, remember the pleasure associated with it, and then recognize it at a later time. They argued that in order for all of these steps to occur, there must be a definite self that persists through time. The Mīmāṃsā school summarized this concept by asserting that the recognition of an object and the original perception of that object must share the same agent, and that agent must therefore be a fixed self. Memory is one mechanism of recognition that Hinduism addressed in their argument, stating that memories are stored within the self in order to be recalled at a later time.

Before analyzing the Buddhists’ counter-argument, it is important to be familiar with the basis of their view of no-self, particularly that of Śāntarakṣita (725–788 AD), a prominent Indian Buddhist philosopher whose works provide the primary content for the Buddhist argument in this paper. This view is grounded in the concept of ‘momentariness’, or kṣaṇikatva, which is the idea that all things, including persons, are evanescent, and that no object or self is permanent. Moreover, Śāntarakṣita contended that there does not exist a ‘self’ which cognizes. Rather, there are only cognitions which arise and vanish in consciousness. Therefore, in order to refute the Hindu argument from memory, Buddhists were tasked with explaining memory in the context of ‘two-fold distinctness’, which is the view that both the object being perceived as well as the perceiver are not permanent entities. This is in contrast to the ‘two-fold identity’ view held by the Hindu schools, which states that recognition relies on the persistence of both the object and the self through time. With regard to the continuance of the object, Buddhists argued that the similarity between distinct objects can account for the recognition of said object. For example, one may identify that an apple is indeed an apple, even though that apple is different from any other apple they had previously perceived. With regard to the continuance of the self, the Buddhists’ counter-argument can be expressed in terms of the concept of ‘series’, or santāna. The notion of ‘series’ holds that all complex things are made up of simple entities, and these entities are the only things that are considered to be real. Persons, for example, are made up of psycho-social entities, and the concept of a permanent identity is solely a mental representation of the amalgamation of said entities. Śāntarakṣita addressed the Hindu argument from memory by stating that as one psycho-social entity (i.e., cognitions) vanishes, it causes another cognition to arise, and so on, thus creating a series of cognitions that are causally related. Therefore, a memory can be understood as a new, distinct cognition, which has been indirectly affected by the original perception. In other words, the original cognition which arises when one sees an apple is causally related to the next cognition, and so on, until one perceives another apple, at which time a new cognition arises with elements of the original cognition having been passed through the series. Not only does this explanation support the view of no-self, but it also suggests that the occurrence of memory itself may cause people to believe in the existence of a persistent self. This parallels John Locke’s views, which state that memory is the foundation for self-identification.

Another component of recognition utilized by the Hindu schools to disprove the no-self view is self-recognition, which is the process of acknowledging that we have previously perceived something (“‘I’ saw this before, and ‘I’ see it now”). The act of acknowledging that one recognizes something requires there to be an acknowledger, considered by the Hindu schools as the self and by the Buddhist tradition as the consciousness. The Hindu schools asserted that if consciousness is momentary, as the Buddhist tradition maintained, then it is impossible to acknowledge that you were the one to have perceived something before. The author points out that Śāntarakṣita does not explicitly address the Hindu argument from self-recognition, however, he applies the Buddhist theories of series and self-consciousness to approach this issue. First, when considering the thoughts, “‘I’ saw this before” and “‘I’ see it now”, Kumārila, a student of Śāntarakṣita, stated that the ‘I’ refers to the series, and not a fixed self. Second, self-consciousness, or self-cognition, in the Buddhist tradition is considered as belonging to the cognition itself, as opposed to belonging to a fixed self. The Yogācāra school of Buddhism further explained this view, asserting that consciousness is intrinsically aware of itself and is therefore capable of performing self-cognition.

To summarize the arguments and counter-arguments of the Hindu and Buddhist schools, the author indicates that both the Mīmāṃsā school and Buddhism believed self-cognition to be essential for the processes of memory and recognition. However, the contrast lies in the conceptualization of self-cognition. The Mīmāṃsā school infers self-cognition as evidence of the cognition of a fixed self, and the Buddhist school designates self-cognition as a role of consciousness. The Mīmāṃsā view has been supported mainly by Cartesian philosophers, whereas the Buddhist view is supported by current trends in cognitive neuroscience. With this in mind, the author asserts his personal opinion that the Buddhist explanation of memory is more compatible with the modern neuroscientific perspective. However, he claims that neither the Hindu nor Buddhist argument from self-recognition can be described as superior to the other, given that they are both rooted in the conceptualizations of the self (or no-self), neither of which have been proven to be more acceptable. Although the purpose of the current paper seems to be differentiating the Hindu and Buddhist perspectives, it demonstrates significant similarities between them, thus illuminating important considerations for our current understanding of cognition and self-awareness. Moreover, it places these perspectives within the context of modern science and emphasizes the continuing relevance of historical religious and philosophical inputs.

References

Fan, W. (2017). On recognition and self: A discussion based on Nyāya, Mīmāṃsā and Buddhism. Asian Philosophy, 27, 292–308. https://doi.org/10.1080/09552367.2017.1389388

Jayaraman, R. (2016). Hinduism: A Brief Portrayal of the Faith. Papers.ssrn.com. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3031714

Lakhan, S. E. (2008). Hinduism: life and death. BMJ, 0809310. https://doi.org/10.1136/sbmj.0809310

Marwaha, S. B. (2006). Colors of truth : Religion, self and emotions : Perspectives of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Islam, Sikhism and contemporary psychology. Concept Publishing Company.

Contributors

• Parham Seyedmazhari
• Kundan Ahluwalia
• Julianna Colafranceschi

Confucianism

This section is currently under construction.

Taoism (~400-600 BCE)

Taoism was established over the course of the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries BCE in China as an alternative to Confucianism, the dominant school of thought at the time. Taoism represents a way of life, and the Tao is believed to be the underlying energy of all of existence. The Taoist way of life involves letting all things follow their natural path and accepting the way events naturally unfold. According to Taoism, the way to achieve happiness and peace is to be fully immersed in the present moment and to live mindfully, not focusing on past hardships or future worries. An important aspect of Taoism is the belief that everything is connected and interdependent; each event that occurs affects the flow of the universe. As such, Taoism promotes compassion, integrity, and cooperation, asserting that all things in the universe rely on one another to prosper. An interesting point of distinction between Taoism and other Eastern philosophies is that Taoist philosophers did not believe in an afterlife or divine beings. Instead, Taoism places an emphasis on exploring one’s inner self in order to understand one’s true nature as well as the nature of the environment. In this way, one can better accept the natural order of things and achieve peace.

There are five main principles of Taoism, the first being P’u, or natural simplicity, which refers to acknowledging the inherent quality of things in their natural state. The second is Tzu-jan, or spontaneity, which is the belief that harmony and order will arise spontaneously when things are left to follow their natural path. The third principle is Wu Wei, or harmonious action, which encompasses following the natural flow of things, accepting all events, both positive and negative, as they arise, and practicing non-judgment. The fourth principle is Te, or virtue, which comprises sensitivity and modesty, is uncovered through being honest with ourselves, and produces acceptance of ourselves and others. The final principle is yin-yang polarity, which lays at the foundation of the Taoist philosophy, and suggests that the key to life is balancing yin and yang, which are complementary and inseparable (e.g., light and dark).

Taoism and Psychology

Taoist philosophy has been applied to psychotherapeutic theory and practice. In comparison to the biopsychosocial model of clinical psychology, which holds that biological, psychological, and social factors contribute to health and/or illness, Taoist psychology contends that health is the result of a balance between mental, physical, emotional, and spiritual factors (Hagen, 2002). Thus, in order to live a healthy and peaceful life, one must attain balance between these domains. According to Taoist psychology, distress (e.g., anxiety, depression, anger) arises when humans are disconnected, either from their inner self or their environment, when problems are avoided, and when we try to compartmentalize things to better understand instead of accepting their nature. Similar to Buddhism, Taoism asserts that suffering is an inevitable aspect of human life, however, this distress can be resolved by acknowledging the source of the problem and addressing it to fulfill needs.

Taoist psychology also established a personality theory (Hagen, 2002). This attributes personality to a combination of genetics and life experiences, and attempts to aid humans in becoming more attuned to their inner self and their surroundings. Taoist ideology holds that the universe and everything in it, in this case, each human being, is continually evolving, and thus, one’s personality is considered as ever-changing rather than a permanent entity. Nevertheless, personality structure is defined as having three levels of existence: chi (physical), jing (mental), and shen (spiritual). Chi is considered the energy of all life, relating to nutrition and other essential elements for living (e.g., the air we breathe). Jing is considered one’s biological temperament and personality characteristics, and is determined by our parents’ genetics. Finally, shen is considered to be one’s consciousness, performing the functions of the mind. Thus, Taoist psychology asserts that individuals cannot be classified into distinct categories, such as in the DSM-IV, because it fails to recognize their holistic experience. With regard to stages of personality development, the highest level of development in the Taoist tradition is becoming a Sage, which is an individual who has gained an intuitive understanding of life and thus, interacts harmoniously with oneself and one’s environment. Characteristics that contribute to the development of a Sage personality include but are not limited to: childlike curiosity, compassion, open-mindedness and resilience. Although individuals achieve greater levels of independence, wisdom, and maturity as they enter adulthood, personality development continues throughout the lifespan, and the fulfillment of a sage personality is not easily attained (similar to Maslow’s self-actualization theory). Furthermore, wisdom is acknowledged and valued at all ages (e.g., children’s awareness and curiosity of their environment). Taoism not only represents an approach to life that can be followed by individuals or groups to achieve greater peace and well-being, but can be readily applied to a variety of psychological theories and practices, such as clinical and personality psychology.

References

Hagen, L. (2002). Taoism and psychology. Religious theories of personality and psychotherapy: East meets west (pp. 141–210). Routledge. https://doi-org.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/10.4324/9780203725238

Contributors

• Peter Liu
• Vraj Shah
• Kristen Arnold
• Anmol Thind

Judaism (**SC)

Written by: Taryn Simon

Judaism is the oldest monotheistic ethnoreligion, believed to originate somewhere in the Middle East approximately 4,000 years ago. Psychology and philosophy have been integral in Judaism since its origin and throughout history. Many of the fundamental beliefs and practices of Judaism are reflected in psychology and the current understanding of the human brain. Notably, many important contributors to the field have been Jewish. This includes Erik Erikson, Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, Viktor Frankl, Lawrence Kohlberg, among many others. Among these notable Jewish psychologists, their contributions have helped shape the fields of psychoanalysis, Gestalt psychology, individual psychology, positive psychology, and intelligence scales.

It is an undeniable fact and no coincidence that there is a disproportionate representation of Jews in the field of psychology and psychiatry (Templer & Tangen, 2014). Many explanations have been proposed for this phenomenon, and while there are likely many that are valid, examining the religious beliefs and values that align with psychology may explain the attraction of so many Jewish individuals to this field. One integral part of Judaism is the emphasis placed on education. It is referenced throughout the Torah that Jews are required to be educated in both Jewish and secular matters. Beginning education at a young age, asking many questions, and intellectual struggle are all encouraged. Education is so strongly embedded in Jewish culture, that Jews are often referred to as the “people of the book”. The value of education is also reflected within every Jewish holiday, all of which revolve around a part of Jewish history and involve practices to remember the lessons learned. Another one of the core values of Judaism is compassion and helping others. Chesed in Hebrew refers to “loving-kindness”, and this is the basis of many of the laws in Judaism. For instance, this includes the commandment to give various types of charity, contribute to the world, and prevent the suffering of all living creatures.

The combination of the Jewish values of education and compassion encourages individuals raised in the Jewish faith to discover new ways to better understand and help their fellow human beings. The field of psychology would not be the same today without the great contributions of Jewish individuals.

References

Haggbloom, S. J., Warnick, R., Warnick, J. E., Jones, V. K., Yarbrough, G. L., Russell, T. M., Borecky, C. M., McGahhey, R., Powell, J. L., Beavers, J., & Monte, E. (2002). The 100 Most Eminent Psychologists of the 20th Century. Review of General Psychology, 6(2), 139–152. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139

“HISTORY: Biblical Times.” Embassies.gov.il, https://embassies.gov.il/UnGeneva/AboutIsrael/history/Pages/History-Biblical-Times.aspx.

Templer, D. I., & Tangen, K. (2014). Jewish Population Percentage in the U.S. States: An Index of Opportunity. Comprehensive Psychology. https://doi.org/10.2466/17.49.CP.3.8