China (SC)

Written by: Jessica Lo

Psychology was introduced to China during the final years of the Qing dynasty (1644-1912). One of the first psychology laboratories was created in the Department of Philosophy of Beijing University in 1917. At this time, only the most basic general psychology courses were offered, with little research done in relation to experimental psychology (Zhongxian & Zhi, 1980). Following the formation of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the Chinese Academy of Sciences established a research office for psychology.

Zhongxian and Zhi (1980) describe that early psychological experiments mainly focused on sensory impressions, with the methodology of the studies imitating both Western and Soviet techniques. However, with the formation of the People’s Republic in 1949, psychology in China came under the influence of Marxist ideas, and experimental techniques from strictly communist countries were to be accepted. This led to Pavlov’s theories becoming a basis for psychological work in China. With this reform came criticism and debate over if psychology should be related to practice. During the 1950s, many experimental psychology experiments explored basic theory, such as those done by Jing Qicheng on the threshold of movement perception and speed judgement. Such experiments did not line up with the country’s ideals at the time, with leadership finding that psychology should be used in order to benefit the people, and not focus on developing theory. Therefore, psychological research would now focus on real-life applications of experimental findings, and the field of ‘labour psychology’ was born. Studies focused on topics such as, “visual judgement of flames by steelworkers . . . creative thinking for technical innovation . . .and psychological requirements in selecting aviation pilots” (Zhongxian & Zhi, 1980).

However, Zhongxian & Zhi (1980) state that the emphasis on the application of psychological research to real life left a gap in laboratory research in China. As Chinese psychologists realized the importance of basic theory research, the 1960s allowed for significant progress in experimental psychology. More laboratories were created to focus on the basic theory of experiential psychology, and systematic research on sensation, learning, and thinking was conducted, achieving a high rate of publication. Research mainly focused on different forms of perception, covering the topics of such as size, distance, and depth. A study by Peng Ruixiang sparked the beginning of image perception research, while Ma Dayou did the same for auditory sensation. Liang Zhi’an and Fang Zhi focused on language perception, specifically the role of special phonetic features of sound, rhyme, and tone. Experimental psychology in China experiences exponential growth during this period until the Maoist government put this progress to a halt. Psychologists were persecuted and were prevented from teaching and researching (Zhongxian & Zhi, 1980).

The revival of experimental psychology occurred as the Maoist government was overthrown in the 1970s, and psychology laboratories and faculties were being restored (Zhongxian & Zhi, 1980). Universities began developing their psychology departments, and psychology once again could flourish in China, and continues to do so today (Zhongxian & Zhi, 1980). The development of Chinese experimental psychology reflects the country’s complex history in the past century, and demonstrates the prevailing of academia, despite the circumstances.

References

Jing, Q., & Fu, X. (2001). Modern Chinese psychology: Its indigenous roots and international influences. International Journal Of Psychology, 36, 408–418. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207590143000234

Lin, Z., & Fang, Z. (1980). Thirty Years of Experimental Psychology in China. Chinese Sociology & Anthropology, 12(3), 43–61. https://doi.org/10.2753/CSA0009-4625120343

Wang, Z. (1993). Psychology in China: A review dedicated to Li Chen. Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 87–116. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.44.020193.000511

Contributors

• Jessica Lo

Germany

This section is under construction.

Japan

The term “psychology” was first translated into Japanese as “seirigaku” in 1870 by Amane Nishi (1829–1897) who formally introduced Western psychology to Japan in 1875 (Azuma, 1984). Azuma’s Japanese translation of J. Haven’s Mental philosophy: Including the intellect, sensibilities, and will, entitled Shinrigaku, was used as an introductory psychology textbook in Japan. Tokyo Imperial University taught psychology when it first opened in 1877, using textbooks written by Western authors (Azuma, 1984). Japan’s first experimental psychology laboratory was established in this very university in 1903, by Matataro Matsumoto (1865–1943) and Yujiro Motora (1858–1912). Matsumoto earned his doctorate at Yale University under the direction of Edward Scripture, a former student of Wilhelm Wundt. Motora studied under G. Stanley Hall and introduced experimental psychology to Japan in 1888 (Azuma, 1984). Hall supervised ten other Japanese scholars, such as Matsusaburo Yokoyama (1890-1966). Yokoyama earned his master’s in experimental psychology from Harvard and his doctorate from Clark, and in 1926 he established the experimental psychology laboratory at Keio-Gijuku University. Evidently, Japanese experimental psychology was heavily influenced by American psychology.

*The word for “psychology” shifted from “serigaku” to “shinrigaku” at some point between its first translation and the final publication of Shinrigaku, although the reasoning for this shift is not fully understood by historians.

Tsuruko Haraguchi (1886-1915)

Psychologist Tsuruko Haraguchi conducted important research on mental fatigue and became the first-ever Japanese woman to earn a doctorate.

Raised by a father who emphasized the importance of education, Haraguchi was an excellent student, even finishing high school early(Takasuna, 2020; Jenkins, 2013). During her studies at Japan Women’s College, Haraguchi became interested in psychology (Takasuna, 2020). As no Japanese institutions allowed women to study psychology, Haraguchi moved to the United States to begin her graduate studies at Columbia University, supervised by Edward Lee Thorndike. While at Columbia, Haraguchi attended lectures taught by influential American psychologists, such as James McKeen Cattell and Robert Woodworth, and eventually received her doctorate in 1912. After her graduation, she married and had two children. Although she did not hold any official academic positions in her career, she continued to write papers and lecture on occasion. Her contributions to psychological literature in Japan include her book Research on Mental Work and Fatigue, published in Japanese in 1914, and the Japanese translation of the text Hereditary Genius, written by Francis Galton. Unfortunately, Haraguchi died young, however, her success inspired other Japanese women to pursue psychology as a field of study and career.

Tomi Kora (1896-1993)

Tomi Kora was one of the women who was influenced by Haraguchi to pursue psychology (Takasuna, 2020). Like Haraguchi, she attended Japan Women’s College and earned her master’s degree while working under Thorndike at Columbia University. While pursuing her Ph.D. at John Hopkins University, Kora studied the effects of hunger on human behaviour, and most interestingly, peace. After earning her Ph.D. in 1922, Kora returned to Japan where she became a research assistant in the Department of Psychiatry at Kyushu Imperial University, later becoming a professor at Japan Women’s College. After resigning as a professor, she became a member of the House of Councilors. During and after her professional career, Kora would continue pursuing her interest in peace studies, attending peace conferences around the world.

References

Azuma, H. (1984). Psychology in a non-Western country. International Journal of Psychology, 19, 45–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207598408247514

Ellenberger, H. (1975). Book review: The Anatomy of Dependence. Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal, 20, 171–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674377502000213

Jenkins, A. (2013). Tsuruko Haraguchi. Feminist Voices. Retrieved from https://feministvoices.com/profiles/tsuruko-haraguchi

Nishikawa, Y. (2005). An overview of the history of psychology in Japan and the background to the development of the Japanese Psychological Association. Japanese Psychological Research, 47, 63–72. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5884.2005.00274.x

Takasuna, M. (2020). The first generation of Japanese women psychologists. Genealogy, 4(2), 61. https://doi.org/10.3390/genealogy4020061

Further Reading

Tatsuya, S. (2005). The early 20th century: Shaping the discipline of psychology in Japan. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5884.2005.00273.x.

Contributors

• Emilia Flores Anaya
• Anmol Thind

India

Narendranath Sengupta (1889-1994)

Narendranath Sengupta is considered the founder of modern psychology in India.

While studying in his birthplace of Bengal, India, Sengupta was one of the few students in his college selected to study abroad (Bhushan, 2017). Sengupta ended up at Harvard University, where he studied psychology under the instruction of Hugo Munsterberg, who was a former student of Wilhelm Wundt. A few years after returning to India in 1915, he headed the newly founded psychology department at the University of Calcutta, where he also opened the country’s first experimental psychology laboratory. In 1924, Sengupta founded the Indian Psychological Association, and a year later, he became the founder and first editor of the Indian Journal of Psychology. Throughout his professional career, Sengupta published several works on various topics, such as psychology, religion, anthropology, etc. Narendranath Sengupta’s legacy of bringing modern psychology to India makes him one of the most inspiring contributors to the field.

Uttar Pradesh (**SC)

Written by: Harshdeep Dhaliwal

The rise of psychology in North India began in 1914 when Dr. Duck, a British psychologist, opened the first experimental psychology laboratory in St. John’s College, Agra. Psychology was commonly taught in British-established colleges, although the first Indian-founded university to create a psychology department in Uttar Pradesh was in 1929 by Lucknow University. Psychology lectures were initially taught in English by the philosophy department before early Indian psychologists, who were often trained in England, the USA, or Canada, introduced psychology departments are several institutions. For instance, the psychology department head, Dr. Sengupta, at Lucknow University, graduated from Harvard University. Overall, the study of psychology in Uttar Pradesh began with experimental and social psychology, before expanding to other fields of psychology like child development, counselling, as well as clinical, positive, and environmental psychology. Other universities that have made developed psychology departments include Deen Dayal Upadhyay Gorakhpur University (Gorakhpur), Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith University (Varanasi), Allahabad University (Allahabad), Banaras Hindu University (Varanasi), Aligarh Muslim University (Aligarh), Chaudhary Charan Singh University (Meerut), and Veer Bahadur Singh Purvanchal University (Jaunpur). Nevertheless, despite psychology’s progressions in Uttar Pradesh, the lack of funding and resources for related institutions and research has limited its advancements in Indian society.

References

Bhushan, B. (2017). Eminent Indian psychologists: 100 Years of Psychology in India. SAGE.

Husain, A. (2021). Psychology in the North India: An Overview. In G. Misra, Sanyal, & S. De (Eds.), Psychology in Modern India (pp. 149–159). Springer Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4705-5_9

Laskin, A. (2013). The Indian Psychological Association, the birth of the modern discipline and “the destiny of one nation”, 1905–1947. Modern Intellectual History, 10, 415–436. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1479244313000085

South Africa

Early South African psychologists studied and received their doctorates around the world, with the most popular locations being the United Kingdom, Germany and the United States (Nicholas, 2014). R. W. Wilcocks earned his doctorate at the University of Berlin, the alma mater of Wilhelm Wundt (Nicholas, 2014). Taking inspiration from Wundt’s laboratory, Wilcocks established the first experimental psychology laboratory in South Africa at the University of Stellenbosch in 1917 (Nicholas, 2014). There, he also created the first independent psychology department in the country (Nicholas, 2014).

Psychology in South Africa gained international attention in 1926 when Jan C. Smuts (1870–1950) published the text Holism and Evolution, which was translated into German and commended by Alfred Adler for its usefulness in the field of individual psychology. In the 1930s, South African psychologists emphasized psychometric testing, spearheaded by Ernst G. Malherbe (1895–1982). Malherbe earned his master’s degree in education in 1921 from Columbia University and his Ph.D. in 1924 at Columbia’s Teachers College, where he worked with a variety of influential scholars, such as psychologist Edward L. Thorndike. He then returned to South Africa and became a senior lecturer of education at the University of Cape Town where he conducted large-scale psychometric tests.

Psychoanalysis was also highly influential in South African psychology around this time. In 1934, Wulf Sachs (1893–1949) published Psychoanalysis: Its meaning and application, which contained an introductory note written by Freud, and in 1937, I. D. MacCrone published Race Attitudes in South Africa: Historical, Experimental, and Psychological Studies, in which MacCrone examined racial conflict in SA from a psychoanalytic perspective.

References

Dubow, S. (2001). Scientism, social research and the limits of ‘South Africanism’: The case of Ernst Gideon Malherbe. South African Historical Journal, 44, 99–142. https://doi.org/10.1080/02582470108671390

MacCrone, I. D. (1937). Race attitudes in South Africa: Historical, experimental and psychological studies. London: Oxford University Press.

Nicholas, L. J. (2014). A history of South African (SA) Psychology. Universitas Psychologica, 13, 1983–1991. https://doi.org/10.11144/javeriana.upsy13-5.hsap

Prof RW Wilcocks. Stellenbosch University. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www0.sun.ac.za/100/en/team/prof-rw-wilcocks/

Contributors

• Anmol Thind

Soviet Union (USSR)