Shapes You Already Know
[p, b, t, d, k, ɡ, s, z, f, v, m, n, l, w, h]
(This can be heard online at Shapes You Already Know)
These symbols represent sounds that are, by and large, immediately recognizable to speakers of English. The following list of words each begins with the sound that these symbols represent (for now, don’t worry about the vowels):
| [pɪn] pin | [bɪn] bin | [tɪn] tin | [dɪn] din | |
| [keɪt] Kate | [ɡeɪt] gate | [su] sue | [zu] zoo | |
| [fæt] fat | [væt] vat | [mid] mead | [nid] need | |
| [li] lea | [wi] we | [hi] he |
(Note that the words are in square brackets to indicate that you are reading a phonetic transcription, where the sounds are represented precisely by the symbols you see.) All those words used spellings that were exactly the same as the phonetic transcription—of the consonants, at least. However, many of the sounds are represented by doubled letters, and other spellings as well:
| [p] | pat, happy (some p’s in spelling are silent, e.g. pneumatic, ptarmigan, receipt, so [p] doesn’t appear in the transcription of these words) | |
| [b] | body, rubber (note that some b’s in spelling are silent e.g. “tomb” is transcribed [tum]) | |
| [t] | top, mate, baked, light, Thames, ptarmigan (some t’s in spelling are silent, e.g. ballet, hasten, soften, so [t] isn’t used in the transcription of these words) | |
| [d] | did, sudden (some d’s in spelling are silent, e.g. handsome, so [d] is left out of the transcription of these words) | |
| [k] | accuse, act, franc, Bacchus, chasm, back, racquet, biscuit, keen, khaki, quiche (some k’s in spelling are silent, e.g. “knight” is transcribed [naɪt]) | |
| [ɡ] | gun, beggar, egg, aghast (some g’s in spelling are pronounced as [dʒ], e.g. “George”) | |
| [s] | cell, sat, psalm, scene, boss, waltz (some s’s in spelling are silent, e.g. “aisle” is transcribed [aɪɫ]) | |
| [z] | dispose, dissolve, tsar/czar, ages, zany, buzz | |
| [f] | fit, off, laugh, rough, phonetic | |
| [v] | of, value, savvy, calve | |
| [m] | plegm, balm, met, climb, hammer, column | |
| [n] | nice, canny, knife, gnash, mnemonic, pneumonia | |
| [l] | lift, balloon (some l’s in spelling are silent e.g. alms, talk, could, so [l] should only appear in the transcription of these words if they are pronounced in that manner.) | |
| [w] | one, quiz, wed (note that some w’s in spelling are silent e.g. wreathe, two, Greenwich, sword, so [w] is absent from the transcription of these words) | |
| [h] | hat, unhappy, who (some h’s in spelling are silent e.g. heir, rhyme, ah, so there is no [h] in the transcription of these words) |
Voicing, Place, and Manner
You may have noticed that some of the consonants above were boxed in pairs. These pairings are based on a simple concept—that you can define consonants based on where in the mouth they are made (technically called place) and how they are made in the mouth (called manner). The sounds in each pair above share the same place and manner, and we call them a cognate pair, so that [p]’s cognate is [b], [t]’s cognate is [d], etc. If each pair is made in the same place and with the same manner, what differentiates them? Place your hand on your throat and make the cognate sounds [p b], [t d], [f v], [s z], [k ɡ] (there are others; we will learn them in a moment). Be sure you’re saying only the consonant sound, and not adding an “uh” sound afterwards! Do you feel how the second consonant of each pair has vibration in your throat, while the first one doesn’t? This means that your vocal folds come together on the second sound and stay apart for the first. We say that the second consonant is “voiced” while the first one is “voiceless”.
Though the familiar consonant symbols don’t cover all the different places, we can discover many of them through this small inventory of sounds.
| Place Where it is Articulated | Linguistic term | Examples |
| Both lips | Bilabial | p, b, m |
| Lower lip on upper teeth | Labiodental | f, v |
| Front edge of tongue on or near gum ridge | Alveolar | t, d, s, z, l, n |
| Back of tongue on the soft palate or velum | Velar | k, g |
| Lips are rounded and back of tongue is up | Labiovelar | w |
| Open airstream with no voicing | Glottal | h |
Similarly, this group of consonant symbols doesn’t represent all the manners in which consonants can be articulated, but we can use it as a means of being introduced to a few:
| The Airstream is… | Linguistic term | Examples |
| Blocked completely | Stop (Plosive) | p, b, t, d, k, ɡ |
| Obstructed to make turbulence and noise | Fricative | f, v, s, z, h |
| Sent via the nose by dropping the soft palate | Nasal | m, n |
| Partially obstructed only enough to distort it | Approximant | w |
| Partially obstructed on the sides of the tongue | Lateral Approximant | l |
In the International Phonetic Alphabet there is a naming convention so that each Consonant is classified by these features. In that way, [p] would be a voiceless, bilabial stop plosive. The sequence of these terms is always voicing, place, manner, or VPM. [v] would be the voiced labiodental fricative. As we learn the rest of the symbols, we’ll discover the remaining places and manners. You should set a goal to learn this “nomenclature” for each of the consonant sounds. It will be helpful when you begin to learn the non-English phonetic symbols, as you’ll be able to compare the places and manners of known sounds to unfamiliar sounds to deduce what/how a sound is made, and how it compares to the sounds you do know. For example, the symbol [ɱ] shares the voicinɡ and manner of a voiced nasal sound, like [m], but its place is the same as the labiodental fricative, [v]: it’s a voiced labiodental nasal.
For the most part, English consonants are pulmonic, meaning that the airstream is generated in the lungs on an exhalation. There are other airstream mechanisms that can be used—for example, hold your breath and try to make a version of /p, t, k/ without breathing out or exhaling any air. This is non-pulmonic because the air is not coming from your lungs, it’s being compressed by your vocal tract. These kinds of consonants are called ejectives, and we’ll review them later in the workbook.
Practice these familiar consonant shapes using this PDF worksheet
Lowercase P: [p]
| Symbol | Spelled | As in… | Name | Notes | |||
| [p] | “p” | “pen” | Lowercase P | Remember you don’t need the serifs at the bottom of the p’s “descender”. | |||
| The Sound & the Action: [p] is a voiceless plosive consonant which is produced bilabially, with both lips. Begin to produce a [p] sound with a closed mouth and by temporarily and entirely stopping the airstream. In order to do this, you will need to lift your soft palate to close off the nasal passage. The air pressure is then released forward, out of both lips. The sound is produced at the very front of the mouth and lacks the onset of voice.
In English, /p/ is said with aspiration, represented with the diacritic superscript h [ʰ], which refers to a puff of air occurring on the release. The aspirated [pʰ] is typically only used in stressed syllables. In unstressed syllables, or following /s/, /p/ is unaspirated; the diacritic mark for unaspirated is a superscript equal sign [p˭]. e.g. [sp˭ɒt]. (Generally, we only use aspiration diacritics when somebody is doing something out of the ordinary, as in spit [ˈspʰɪtʰ] ). In some accents or contexts, a final /p/ in an utterance is “popped,” or said without air from the lungs, i.e. it is non-pulmonic, which is represented by an apostrophe after the sound, as in stop [ˈstɒpʼ]. In other accents or contexts, final /p/ is not released. This can be done with a holding of the breath, and so the “no audible release” diacritic [ ̚] is appropriate [ˈstɒp̚], or the /p/ is coarticulated with a glottal stop [ʔ], as in [ˈstɒʔp]. |
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| Linguistic Term: Voiceless bilabial stop (plosive). | |||||||
| Spellings |
paint, picture, apple, adapt, cheap, scrap
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Lowercase B: [b]
| Symbol | Spelled | As in… | Name | Notes | |||
| [b] | “b” | “boy” | Lowercase B | No hook needed at the top of the b’s “ascender”. | |||
| The Sound & the Action: [b] is a voiced plosive consonant sound which is produced bilabially. Begin to produce a [b] sound with a closed mouth and by temporarily and completely stop the airstream. In order to do this, you will need to lift your soft palate to close off the nasal passage. The air pressure is then released forward, out on both lips through a partial opening of the lips and requires the onset of voice. The sound is produced at the very front of the mouth.
In some accents or contexts, final /b/ is not released. This can be done with a holding of the breath, and so the “no audible release” diacritic [ ̚] is appropriate cab [ˈkæb̚], or the /b/ is coarticulated with a glottal stop [ʔ], as in lab [ˈlæʔb]. |
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| Linguistic Term: Voiced bilabial stop (plosive). | |||||||
| Spellings | bingo, blue, obvious, arbitrary, cob, disturb | ||||||
Lowercase T: [t]
| Symbol | Spelled | As in… | Name | Notes | |||
| [t] | “t” | “tap” | Lowercase T | My preference is to have a slight hook on the bottom of the [t] so that there is a difference between it and the “barred L” symbol [ɫ]. | |||
| The Sound & the Action: [t] is a voiceless plosive consonant sound which is articulated on the front edge of the tongue, on, or near, the gum ridge. Begin to produce the [t] sound with partially opened lips, placing the front edge of the tongue on the gum ridge, with the soft palate lifted, to stop the airstream. The air pressure is then released forward, by releasinɡ the tongue from its initial position. The sound is produced at the front of the mouth and does not require the onset of voice. In English, /t/ is said with aspiration, represented with the diacritic superscript h [ʰ], which refers to a puff of air occurring on the release, as in tip [tʰɪp]. The aspirated [tʰ] is typically only used in stressed syllables. In unstressed syllables, or in the /st-/ cluster, /t/ is unaspirated; the diacritic mark for unaspirated is a superscript equal sign [t˭], e.g. stop [st˭ɒp]. (Generally, we only use aspiration diacritics when somebody is doing something out of the ordinary, as in static [ˈstʰætʰɪkʰ]).
In most accents in North America, and increasingly in Australia, New Zealand, and the UK, unstressed medial /t/ is articulated with a soft, /d/-like sound (see the “fish-hook” symbol [ɾ], a symbol we are yet to learn). Some accents replace this intervocalic[3] /t/ with a sound make in the larynx, a “glottal stop” [ʔ]. In some accents or contexts, a final /t/ in an utterance is “spit out,” or said without air from the lungs, i.e. it is a non-pulmonic ejective, which is represented by an apostrophe after the sound, as in hit [ˈhɪtʼ]. In other accents or contexts, final /t/ is not released. This can be done with a holding of the breath, and so the “no audible release” diacritic [ ̚] is appropriate hat [ˈhæt̚], or the /t/ is coarticulated with a glottal stop [ʔ], as in hut [ˈhʌʔt]. |
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| Linguistic Term: Voiceless alveolar stop (plosive). | |||||||
| Spellings | tundra, tango, between, detox, robot, shout | ||||||
Lowercase D: [d]
| Symbol | Spelled | As in… | Name | Notes | |||
| [d] | “d” | “dog” | Lowercase D | This is really simple… | |||
| The Sound & the Action: [d] is a voiced plosive consonant sound which is articulated on the front edge of the tongue, on the gum ridge. Begin to produce the [d] sound with partially opened lips, placing the front edge of the tongue on the gum ridge, with the soft palate lifted, temporarily and completely stopping the airstream. The air pressure is then released forward, by releasing the tongue off its initial position and requires the onset of voicing. The sound is produced towards the front of the mouth.
In some accents or contexts, final /d/ is not released. This can be done with a holding of the breath, and so the “no audible release” diacritic [ ̚] is appropriate sad [ˈsæd̚], or the /d/ is coarticulated with a glottal stop [ʔ], as in mad [ˈmæʔd]. |
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| Linguistic Term: Voiced alveolar stop (plosive). | |||||||
| Spellings | disaster, dirt, middle, audio, third, mud | ||||||
Lowercase K: [k]
| Symbol | Spelled | As in… | Name | Notes | |||
| [k] | “k” | “keep” | Lowercase K | Notice how the upper diagonal is made first, and then the lower diagonal comes off it. | |||
| The Sound & the Action: [k] is a voiceless plosive consonant which is articulated by the back of the tongue pressing on the roof of the mouth. The tongue placement is aligned with the following vowel sound. For back vowels, such a /u/ in cool, it’s on the soft palate or velum, and for front vowels, such as /i/ as in keep, the /k/ is articulated on the hard palate. Begin to produce the [k] sound with partially opened lips, placing the back of the tongue on the palate or velum, with the soft palate lifted, which temporarily and completely blocks the airstream. The air pressure is then released forward, by dropping and releasing the back of the tongue from its initial position. The sound is produced in the back of the mouth and does not require the onset of voice.
In English, /k/ is said with aspiration, represented with the diacritic superscript h [ʰ], which refers to a puff of air occurring on the release, as in cat [kʰæt]. The aspirated [kʰ] is typically only used in stressed syllables. In unstressed syllables, or following the /sk-/ cluster, is unaspirated; the diacritic mark for unaspirated is a superscript equal sign [k˭], e.g. scoop [sk˭up] (Generally, we only use aspiration diacritics when somebody is doing something out of the ordinary, as in scoot [skʰutʰ]). In some accents or contexts, a final /k/ in an utterance is “spit out,” or said without air from the lungs, i.e. it is a non-pulmonic ejective, which is represented by an apostrophe after the sound, as in nick [ˈnɪkʼ]. In other accents or contexts, final /k/ is not released. This can be done with a holding of the breath, and so the “no audible release” diacritic [ ̚] is appropriate sack [ˈsæk̚], or the /k/ is coarticulated with a glottal stop [ʔ], as in klick [ˈklɪʔk]. |
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| Linguistic Term: Voiceless velar stop (plosive). | |||||||
| Spellings | key, kitchen, describe, sacrifice, pick, shock | ||||||
Lowercase G: [g]
| Symbol | Spelled | As in… | Name | Notes | |||
| [ɡ] | “g” | “go” | Lowercase G | This is a “single story”, which is noticeably different from the “double-story” version often used in typography “g”. | |||
| The Sound & the Action: [ɡ] is a voiced plosive sound which is articulated by the back of the tongue pressing on the roof of the mouth. The tongue placement is aligned with the following vowel sound. For back vowels, such a /u/ in goop, it’s on the soft palate or velum, and for front vowels, such as /ɪ/ as in give, the /ɡ/ is articulated on the hard palate. Begin to produce the [ɡ] sound with partially opened lips, placing the back of the tongue on the palate or velum, with the soft palate lifted, which temporarily and completely blocks the airstream from travellinɡ out the mouth and the nose. The air pressure is then released forward, by dropping and releasing the back of the tongue from its initial position. The sound is produced in the back of the mouth and requires the onset of voice.
In some accents or contexts, final /ɡ/ is not released. This can be done with a holding of the breath, and so the “no audible release” diacritic [ ̚] is appropriate bag [ˈbæɡ̚], or the /ɡ/ is coarticulated with a glottal stop [ʔ], as in nag [ˈnæʔɡ]. |
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| Linguistic Term: Voiced velar stop (plosive). | |||||||
| Spellings | good, glad, argue, baggage, shag, blog | ||||||
Lowercase S: [s]
| Symbol | Spelled | As in… | Name | Notes | |||
| [s] | “s” | “see” | Lowercase S | Don’t make a script “s”, as in “s” | |||
| The Sound & the Action: [s] is a voiceless fricative consonant which is articulated with the front edge of the tongue near the gum ridge. Alternatively, in some speakers, /s/ is articulated with the front edge of the tongue behind the lower front teeth and the blade of the tongue arching up towards the gum ridge. Either way, the action of the tongue creates a narrow groove through which the air flows, directed towards the gum ridge or the back of the upper front teeth. The sound is produced through turbulent airflow in this narrow space and is articulated in the front of the mouth. | |||||||
| Linguistic Term: Voiceless alveolar fricative. | |||||||
| Spellings | sad, siren, muscle, husky, terrace, mess | ||||||
Lowercase Z: [z]
| Symbol | Spelled | As in… | Name | Notes | |||
| [z] | “z” | “zebra” | Lowercase Z | Don’t bar your “z”, as in “ƶ”. | |||
| The Sound & the Action: [z] is a voiced fricative consonant which is articulated with the front edge of the tongue near the gum ridge. Alternatively, in some speakers, /z/ is articulated with the front edge of the tongue behind the lower front teeth and the blade of the tongue arching up towards the gum ridge. Either way, the action of the tongue creates a narrow groove through which the air flows, directed towards the gum ridge or the back of the teeth. The sound is produced through turbulent airflow in this narrow space and is articulated in the front of the mouth. This sound requires the onset of voice. | |||||||
| Linguistic Term: Voiced alveolar fricative. | |||||||
| Spellings | zesty, zigzag, fuzzy, enzyme, jazz, friends | ||||||
Lowercase F: [f]
| Symbol | Spelled | As in… | Name | Notes | |||
| [f] | “f” | “frog” | Lowercase F | No serif needed at the bottom. | |||
| The Sound & the Action: [f] is a voiceless fricative consonant which is articulated by placing the lower lip on the edge of the upper front teeth. Begin to produce the [f] sound by allowing your lower lip to make contact with the edge of your upper teeth, while your tongue remains relaxed. The sound is produced through turbulent airflow between the lip and the teeth and is articulated in the front of the mouth. This sound does not require the onset of voice. | |||||||
| Linguistic Term: Voiceless labiodental fricative. | |||||||
| Spellings | fun, phone, awful, affluent, laugh, chief | ||||||
Lowercase V: [v]
| Symbol | Spelled | As in… | Name | Notes | |||
| [v] | “v” | “velvet” | Lowercase V | Keep the bottom of the v pointy. | |||
| The Sound & the Action: [v] is a voiced fricative consonant which is articulated by placing the lower lip on the edge of the upper front teeth. Begin to produce the [v] sound by allowing your lower lip to make contact with the edge of your upper front teeth, while your tongue remains relaxed. The sound is produced through turbulent airflow, it is articulated in the front of the mouth, and it requires the onset of voice. | |||||||
| Linguistic Term: Voiced labiodental fricative. | |||||||
| Spellings | victory, very, evil, anvil, improv, mazeltov, of | ||||||
Lowercase M: [m]
| Symbol | Spelled | As in… | Name | Notes | |||
| [m] | “m” | “magic” | Lowercase M | No serifs needed on the m’s “feet”. | |||
| The Sound & the Action: [m] is a voiced nasal consonant sound which is articulated bilabially, with both lips coming together. For all nasal sounds, the soft palate is relaxed to allow the air to flow out the mouth. Begin to produce the [m] sound with both lips in contact with one another. The sound is produced in the front of the mouth and requires the onset of voice. | |||||||
| Linguistic Term: Voiced bilabial nasal. | |||||||
| Spellings | master, mad, admit, armour, boom, calm | ||||||
Lowercase N: [n]
| Symbol | Spelled | As in… | Name | Notes | |||
| [n] | “n” | “navy” | Lowercase M | No serifs needed on the n’s “feet”. | |||
| The Sound & the Action: [n] is a voiced nasal consonant sound which is articulated with the front edge of the tongue on the gum ridge. The soft palate is relaxed to allow the airflow to travel out the nose. Begin to produce the [n] sound with partially open lips and with the tongue placed on the gum ridge. The sound is produced towards the front of the mouth and requires the onset of voice. | |||||||
| Linguistic Term: Voiced alveolar nasal. | |||||||
| Spellings | never, pneumatic, annoy, banjo, gone, acorn | ||||||
Lowercase L: [l]
| Symbol | Spelled | As in… | Name | Notes | |||
| [l] | “l” | “luck” | Lowercase L | No loops needed, but make sure it is tall enough. Sometimes people make them so short they start to look like some of the vowel shapes, most notably, [ɪ]. Don’t go past the baseline or else it becomes a pause mark [|]. | |||
| The Sound & the Action: [l] is a voiced lateral approximant sound which is articulated with the front edge of the tongue on the gum ridge. Different to all other sounds in English, the sound of /l/ is articulated at the side(s) of the tongue, not the center. While the point of contact is the tip of the tongue behind the upper front teeth, the airstream is sent around one or both sides of the tongue. /l/ is a voiced approximant sound which are articulated with enough space at the point of articulation so that the sound has no turbulence. The sound is produced at the side(s) of the mouth and requires the onset of voice. | |||||||
| Linguistic Term: Voiced alveolar lateral approximant. | |||||||
| Spellings | list, length, elbow, aglow, April, conventional | ||||||
Lowercase W: [w]
| Symbol | Spelled | As in… | Name | Notes | |||
| [w] | “w” | “waffle” | Lowercase W | Keep the points at the bottom sharp (a double-V rather than a double-U). | |||
| The Sound & the Action: [w] is a voiced labial-velar approximant sound which is articulated with rounded lips and the back of the tongue in a raised position, close to the soft palate or velum. It is an approximant sound as the airstream must be only partially blocked in order to distort it and release the [w] sound. The [w] sound requires the onset of voice. Begin producing the sound with rounded lips and with your back of your tongue raised upward toward the velum, in order to temporarily constrict the airstream. Depending on the personal perception of certain versions of the [w] sound, speakers may feel their sound is made more in the back or more with the lips. [w] is essentially the vowel [u] “OO” as in goose, with even more lip rounding. [w] cannot occur at the end of an utterance, so there are no spellings that end with a <w> where it is pronounced. For example, the <w> at the end of draw is part of the final vowel [ɔ], and not a consonant [w]. | |||||||
| Linguistic Term: Voiced labial-velar approximant. | |||||||
| Spellings | wool, wig, always, swimming | ||||||
Lowercase H: [h]
| Symbol | Spelled | As in… | Name | Notes | |||
| [h] | “h” | “hard” | Lowercase H | Keep it simple. | |||
| The Sound & the Action: [h] is a voiceless glottal fricative consonant which is articulated with parted lips. [h] is essentially a voiceless vowel, that is formed where the following vowel is shaped in the mouth. So, the [h] in he is a voiceless [i] and the [h] in her is a voiceless [ɝ]. [h] cannot occur at the end of an utterance, so there are no spellings that end with an <h> where it is pronounced. For example, the <h> at the end of Sarah is part of the final vowel [ɑ], and not a consonant [h]. | |||||||
| Linguistic Term: Voiceless glottal fricative. | |||||||
| Spellings | hair, who, grasshopper, beehive | ||||||
Audio Quiz 1
Nonsense Words With Familiar Consonants
- MRI 2. Janet Beck. Voiceless bilabial plosive. Seeing Speech. Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 2018. Web. 21 August 2024. https://seeingspeech.ac.uk/ipa-charts/?chart=1&datatype=4&speaker=1#location=112 ↵
- MRI 2. Janet Beck. Voiced bilabial plosive. Seeing Speech. Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 2018. Web. 21 August 2024. https://seeingspeech.ac.uk/ipa-charts/?chart=1&datatype=4&speaker=1#location=98 ↵
- Between two vowels ↵
- MRI 2. Janet Beck. Voiceless alveolar plosive. Seeing Speech. Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 2018. Web. 21 August 2024. https://seeingspeech.ac.uk/ipa-charts/?chart=1&datatype=4&speaker=1#location=116 ↵
- MRI 2. Janet Beck. Voiced alveolar plosive. Seeing Speech. Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 2018. Web. 21 August 2024. https://seeingspeech.ac.uk/ipa-charts/?chart=1&datatype=4&speaker=1#location=100 ↵
- MRI 2. Janet Beck. Voiceless velar plosive. Seeing Speech. Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 2018. Web. 21 August 2024. https://seeingspeech.ac.uk/ipa-charts/?chart=1&datatype=4&speaker=1#location=107 ↵
- MRI 2. Janet Beck. Voiced velar plosive. Seeing Speech. Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 2018. Web. 21 August 2024. https://seeingspeech.ac.uk/ipa-charts/?chart=1&datatype=4&speaker=1#location=609 ↵
- MRI 2. Janet Beck. Voiceless alveolar fricative. Seeing Speech. Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 2018. Web. 21 August 2024. https://seeingspeech.ac.uk/ipa-charts/?chart=1&datatype=4&speaker=1#location=115 ↵
- MRI 2. Janet Beck. Voiced alveolar fricative. Seeing Speech. Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 2018. Web. 21 August 2024. https://seeingspeech.ac.uk/ipa-charts/?chart=1&datatype=4&speaker=1#location=122 ↵
- MRI 2. Janet Beck. Voiceless labiodental fricative. Seeing Speech. Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 2018. Web. 21 August 2024. https://seeingspeech.ac.uk/ipa-charts/?chart=1&datatype=4&speaker=1#location=102 ↵
- MRI 2. Janet Beck. Voiced labiodental fricative. Seeing Speech. Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 2018. Web. 21 August 2024. https://seeingspeech.ac.uk/ipa-charts/?chart=1&datatype=4&speaker=1#location=118 ↵
- MRI 2. Janet Beck. Voiced bilabial nasal. Seeing Speech. Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 2018. Web. 21 August 2024. https://seeingspeech.ac.uk/ipa-charts/?chart=1&datatype=4&speaker=1#location=109 ↵
- MRI 2. Janet Beck. Voiced alveolar nasal. Seeing Speech. Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 2018. Web. 21 August 2024. https://seeingspeech.ac.uk/ipa-charts/?chart=1&datatype=4&speaker=1#location=110 ↵
- MRI 2. Janet Beck. Voiced alveolar lateral approximant. Seeing Speech. Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 2018. Web. 21 August 2024. https://seeingspeech.ac.uk/ipa-charts/?chart=1&datatype=4&speaker=1#location=108 ↵
- MRI 2. Janet Beck. Voiced labial-velar approximant. Seeing Speech. Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 2018. Web. 21 August 2024. https://seeingspeech.ac.uk/ipa-charts/?chart=3&datatype=4&speaker=1#location=119 ↵
- MRI 2. Janet Beck. Voiceless glottal fricative. Seeing Speech. Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 2018. Web. 21 August 2024. https://seeingspeech.ac.uk/ipa-charts/?chart=1&datatype=4&speaker=1#location=104 ↵