Week 6: Data Analysis and Results

Welcome back!

I hope you embraced the opportunity provided by last week’s content to recenter and rejuvenate. The slower pace was designed to offer you a chance to regroup, prepare, plan, and catch up on any outstanding tasks. By this point, you should have either completed or been well into the data-collection phase of your research. It’s important to remember that each research journey is unique, with its own set of timelines and milestones. If you haven’t yet completed data collection, there’s no need for stress or anxiety. As long as you’re making steady progress and staying aligned with your personalized timeline – and your supervisor is content with the pace of your progress – you’re doing exceptionally well.

As we move forward, the pace of our workshop will begin to accelerate. This week, our focus shifts towards understanding and preparing the results section of your thesis. We’ll start by revisiting the fundamentals of what a results section entails and explore the various types of analyses you can perform on your collected data. Here’s what to expect:

• Understanding the Results Section: We’ll delve into the essentials of crafting a results section, including how to present your findings in a clear, concise, and logical manner. We’ll cover the importance of accurately representing your data without interpretation or bias.
• Hands-on Practice with R-Studio: R-Studio, a widely used statistical software, will be our tool for data analysis practice. Even if you’re new to R-Studio, we’ll guide you through some basic exercises to build your confidence in using this powerful tool.
• Drafting the Results: Armed with an understanding of data analysis and practical experience from R-Studio, you’ll start drafting your results. This initial draft doesn’t have to be perfect; focus on structuring your findings logically and ensuring all relevant data is included.

Remember, the results section is where your data speaks for itself. It sets the stage for the discussion section where you’ll interpret these findings. So, let’s dive into this crucial phase with enthusiasm and a keen eye for detail, laying a solid foundation for the next steps of your thesis project.

A Guide for Writing an Effective Results Section

The results section is arguably the hardest part of a paper to read, so it’s crucial to make it as readable, concise, and straightforward as possible. The primary goal of the results section is to present your findings in an unbiased manner, allowing readers to make assumptions, interpretations, and conclusions of their own before reading yours. Therefore, report your findings as they are, without inserting your interpretations or assumptions. Your role in this section is to present data, not to explain or interpret it. Here are some tips and tricks to enhance the effectiveness of your results section:

Understand Formatting and Style Requirements

Before you start writing the first draft of your results section, it is crucial to familiarize yourself thoroughly with any formatting requirements set by your institution or supervisor. These may encompass specific program-related requirements or particular expectations set forth by your supervisor that are essential to adhere to when preparing for submission. Compliance with these formatting guidelines is not just about adhering to academic standards; it also prevents unnecessary loss of marks in this relatively simple area.

Furthermore, it’s important to delve into the specific requirements of the citation style mandated for your thesis. Each citation style, be it APA, MLA, Chicago, or others, comes with its unique set of guidelines that dictate how to format various elements of your paper. This can include specific instructions for structuring your results section, such as how to format subheadings, the correct way of reporting numerical data, and the presentation of figures and tables. Adhering to these guidelines is not only about maintaining consistency; it’s also about enhancing the readability and professional appearance of your thesis. By paying close attention to these details, you ensure that your results section is not only informative but also impeccably presented, reflecting a high level of academic rigour and attention to detail. Therefore, it is essential to be thoroughly aware of these requirements, as they may differ from or contrast with some of the other guidelines mentioned below.

Reporting Required Statistics 

Ensure to include all necessary statistical information. Consult with your supervisor on what stats you should report. This typically includes but is certainly not limited to specific test statistics such as means, standard deviations, samples sizes (per condition in between designs), correlations between dependent measures in within designs, t-values or F-values in the case of t-tests or ANOVA, respectively, p-values, effect sizes and their confidence interval. ^[1]

Note that the selection of these statistics depends on the type of data analysis conducted, but you sure ensure to state statistics for each analysis and understand the relevance of each statistic to your specific analysis and research questions. Moreover, make sure to follow the norms and expectations of your academic field regarding which statistics to report as well as the format in which they should be reported. This detailed statistical reporting is not only a mark of rigorous research but also allows other researchers to fully understand the scope and significance of your results. It contributes to the transparency and reproducibility of your research, which are foundational elements of scientific integrity.

Examine Other Papers

Examining the results sections of papers within your field, particularly those authored by your supervisor, can be incredibly instructive. Pay attention to how these sections are structured, the clarity and precision of the language, and the methods used to present data. This approach offers an excellent foundation for understanding how to format and craft your own results section. Remember, a thesis is not only a piece of research work but also an academic document that will be evaluated, so it’s important to align your writing with the expectations of your grader, who is most likely your supervisor.

Understanding the style and structure preferred by your supervisor can be particularly beneficial, as it reflects their academic standards and expectations. This insight can be invaluable when it comes to ensuring your work aligns with their grading criteria. Additionally, papers published in your field have usually undergone rigorous stages of peer review, making them exemplars of high-quality academic writing and research presentations. These papers represent the ‘best of the best’ in your field and serve as valuable resources for your work.

However, while drawing inspiration from these sources is encouraged, it’s crucial to maintain a clear boundary between inspiration and plagiarism. The goal is not to replicate a results section verbatim or simply insert your data into someone else’s structure. Instead, use these examples as a guide for developing your unique approach to presenting your findings. Look for ways they effectively communicate complex data, organize their results logically, and maintain reader engagement. By doing so, you’re not just copying a format; you’re learning from established methods and applying these insights to create a results section that is both academically rigorous and original in its presentation.

Be Clear and Concise

In writing the results section of your research paper, clarity and conciseness are key. Long, complex sentences can make it difficult for readers to grasp the main points of your findings. Remember, the goal is to communicate your research effectively, not to impress with sophisticated vocabulary or convoluted sentence structures. A research paper, particularly the results section, can already be challenging to navigate; your writing should aim to simplify the reader’s journey, not complicate it. Here are some tips for achieving clarity and brevity in your writing:

• Simplicity is Strength: Use simple, straightforward language. Avoid jargon and complex words where simpler ones will do. The easier it is to read your results, the more effectively your research will be communicated. You should practice this in all aspects of your paper not just the results.

• Short Sentences: Break down long sentences into shorter, more digestible ones. This helps in maintaining the reader’s attention and ensuring that your points are conveyed clearly.

• Avoid Overuse of Technical Terms: While technical terms are sometimes necessary, overuse can alienate readers unfamiliar with the terminology. Aim for a balance between technical accuracy and accessibility.

• Define Technical Terms: When you do use technical terms, make sure to define them. This practice ensures that your paper is inclusive, allowing readers from diverse backgrounds to understand your results.

• No Ambiguity: Your results should be presented in a way that leaves no room for interpretation. Be specific and direct in your descriptions to avoid any potential confusion.

• Use Footnotes for Additional Explanations: If you need to include technical terms or additional information but want to keep the main text concise, consider using footnotes. This way, readers interested in more detailed explanations can refer to them without interrupting the flow of your main text.

Present Data Logically

When organizing your results, it’s essential to arrange them in a sequence that mirrors the methodology you followed in your research. This organization can take various forms, such as a chronological order, which follows the timeline of your experiments or studies; a thematic arrangement, grouping results by specific themes or topics; or an order of importance, highlighting the most significant findings first. The key is to choose a structure that best suits the nature of your research and makes it easy for your reader to follow your thought process.

Be strategic and thoughtful in how you present your data. The progression of your results should feel natural and intuitive to the reader. When dealing with related analyses or follow-up experiments, it’s helpful to present them consecutively. This approach aids in maintaining coherence and allows readers to easily track the development of your research.

If your thesis involves multiple related experiments, consider using a consistent format for presenting your analyses. This consistency can be particularly beneficial when you want your readers to compare results across different experiments. For instance, you might decide that in the first paragraph of each section, you will discuss a specific analysis that was conducted across all experiments. This uniform structure guides your readers, enabling them to make comparisons more efficiently and grasp the full scope of your research.

Highlight Key Findings

While you should avoid interpretation, it’s important to indicate the key findings. This helps readers to understand the most significant results. The strategic choice of words in your results section can play a crucial role in guiding your reader through the complexities of your data. While maintaining impartiality and avoiding bias is essential, it’s equally important to help your reader understand the significance of your findings. To a researcher deeply involved in their work, the results might seem straightforward, but to an external reader, they can be challenging to decipher. This is particularly true when it comes to identifying which analysis or effect is most critical or most directly addresses your research question. To navigate this delicate balance, consider using specific words that subtly highlight the importance of certain analyses or effects without leading the reader to a biased conclusion. Here are some suggestions:

It’s important to use these words and phrases with discretion. Overuse or inappropriate use can detract from the objective tone that is expected in a scientific results section. The goal is to use these strategic words to guide your reader’s attention to the most critical parts of your data, enhancing their understanding of how your results tie into your overall research question. By doing so, you ensure that your results section is not only informative but also engaging and accessible to your audience.

Use Visual Aids Effectively

Effective visual aids, such as graphs, charts, and tables, play a vital role in enhancing the comprehension and impact of your results section. These aids should be designed with utmost clarity and precision to ensure they effectively communicate your data. Here are some general guidelines for creating and integrating visual aids into your results section:

• Clarity and Precision: Your visual aids should be clear and precise. Ensure that graphs and charts are not overcrowded with data and that tables are neatly organized. The aim is to present information in a way that is easy to understand at a glance.
• Proper Labeling: Every visual aid in your research paper must be properly labelled, with titles, axis labels, legends, and any essential explanatory notes. The goal is to craft each figure or table to be self-sufficient and comprehensively informative. This means that a reader should be able to understand the visual aid independently, without the need to constantly cross-reference the accompanying text in the results section. To achieve this level of clarity and autonomy in your visuals:
  • Clear Titles: Assign a clear and descriptive title to each visual aid, summarizing what it represents. This gives the reader a quick understanding of the content at a glance.
  • Detailed Axis Labels: Ensure that the axes of graphs are clearly labelled, including units of measurement where applicable. This provides context to the data being presented.
  • Informative Legends: Use legends effectively to explain symbols, colours, or patterns used in your visual aid. Legends should be concise yet comprehensive enough to make the visual aid understandable on its own.
  • Explanatory Notes: Where necessary, include brief notes or explanations within the visual aid as a figure caption to clarify any unusual or complex data presentations.
  • Considerate Layout: Arrange the elements within each visual aid in a logical, easy-to-follow manner. This includes the thoughtful placement of labels, legends, and notes to enhance readability.
• Quality of Your Visual Aids: Ensuring the high quality of figures and tables in your research paper is crucial for effective communication of your data. This involves paying attention to several key aspects to ensure that the visuals are clear, legible, and aesthetically pleasing. Here are some points to consider:
  • High Resolution: Ensure that the resolution and quality of your visual aids are high enough for clear viewing, both in digital and printed formats. Blurry or pixelated visuals can make it hard for readers to discern details, leading to misunderstanding or misinterpretation of the data. They can also detract from the professionalism of your work.
  • Legible Text Size: The text in your tables, including numbers, titles, axis labels, and legends, should be of a size that’s easy to read. Avoid using font sizes that are too small, as this can make your tables difficult to decipher.
  • Clear and Readable Fonts: Use clear, professional fonts for all text in your visual aids. Avoid overly stylized fonts that might compromise readability.
  • Appropriate Scaling: Ensure that your figures and tables are appropriately scaled. This means avoiding overstretching or compressing images, as this can distort the data presentation.
  • Eye-friendly Colors & Accessibility: Choose colour schemes that are easy on the eyes. Avoid overly bright or clashing colours that can make the figures hard to look at and understand. Consider accessibility too; for instance, use colorblind-friendly palettes where necessary. Adding descriptive captions can also make your visuals more inclusive.
  • Adequate Spacing: In tables, ensure there is adequate spacing between columns and rows. Cramped tables can be challenging to read and may lead to data being overlooked or misread.
  • Contrast and Clarity: Ensure there is sufficient contrast between text and background colours. Low contrast can make text difficult to read, especially in graphs or charts.
  • Test Print: If your paper will be printed, test how your figures and tables look in print form. Sometimes, colours and details that are clear on a screen may not translate well to print.
  • Professional Software: Use professional-grade software for creating your visual aids. These tools offer greater control over the quality and formatting of your visuals.
• Direct Relevance: Each visual aid in your paper must directly relate to and support the text. It should either illustrate or elaborate on the specific points you’re discussing in your narrative. Refrain from incorporating visuals that do not have a direct connection to your results, as irrelevant images can detract from the coherence of your work. Visual aids should also complement, not duplicate, the information in your text. They should provide an additional layer of understanding or a different perspective on the data, rather than simply repeating what has already been said. Additionally, if you’re using figures or images from external sources, it’s imperative to acknowledge these sources correctly. Proper citation not only respects intellectual property but also maintains the credibility and integrity of your research.
• Referencing and Integration: When introducing a visual aid, refer to it explicitly in your text (e.g., “as shown in Figure 1”). This guides readers to the visual aid and emphasizes its importance in understanding your results. Moreover, position your visual aids close to the relevant text where they are discussed. This proximity helps readers to easily correlate the visual data with the written explanation.
• Effective Data Presentation: Choose the right type of visual aid for your data. Effective data presentation is about selecting the most appropriate type of visual aid to communicate your data clearly and accurately. The choice of visual aid depends on the nature of the data you’re presenting and the message you wish to convey. Below is a brief guide on how to choose the right visual aid. Consider this information carefully and, if feasible, draft preliminary versions of various figures for comparison. Seek feedback from your peers, and more importantly, present these drafts to your supervisor. It’s crucial to finalize the type of visual aid you use in consultation with your supervisor to ensure it aligns with your research objectives and expectations.

Use Supplementary Material

Utilizing supplementary material, such as appendices or online supplements, is an effective strategy when you have an extensive amount of data that is important but too voluminous to include directly in the main results section of your paper. This approach helps maintain the clarity and focus of your results while still providing all necessary data for interested readers. Here’s how and why to use supplementary material effectively:

• Preventing Clutter: Including too much data in the main body of your paper can overwhelm readers and detract from the key findings. By relocating detailed tables, extensive raw data, lengthy mathematical proofs, or additional figures to appendices or online supplements, you keep the main text focused and readable.
• Enhancing Accessibility: Supplementary material makes your research more accessible and comprehensive. Readers interested in delving deeper can access the detailed data, while those seeking an overview can stick to the main results.
• Improving Navigation: By placing less critical or more detailed data in appendices, you improve the navigational flow of your paper. This organization allows readers to easily find and understand the main results without getting lost in a sea of data.
• Providing Additional Context: Supplementary material can include pilot data, additional experiments, extended methodologies, or datasets that provide context to your research, which might be of interest to specialists or other researchers in your field.
• Referencing in the Main Text: Ensure that any supplementary material is appropriately referenced in the main text. Direct your readers to the specific appendix or online resource where they can find additional information.
• Formatting and Organization: Just as with your main paper, any supplementary material should be meticulously organized and formatted to facilitate easy understanding. It’s crucial to include clear headings, labels, and explicit instructions for interpreting the data. Therefore, the same guidelines you apply to your main results section should extend to your appendices. Unfortunately, this section is often overlooked, which is a significant oversight. Remember, those who are most invested in and intrigued by your research are likely to delve into these supplementary materials, so it’s imperative to make a positive impression. Moreover, it’s essential to remember – and I’ll keep emphasizing this – that your thesis is a graded piece of work. Therefore, it’s vital to maintain the same level of professionalism and attention to detail in your supplementary materials as you do in your results section.
• Online Supplements: This particular point may not necessarily apply to your thesis project, but if one of your goals is to submit your thesis manuscript for publication (i.e., you’re completing a sandwich thesis) then this might be a benefit worth considering. In the digital age, many journals allow or encourage the submission of online supplementary materials. These can include interactive data sets, extended multimedia content like videos or audio files, and additional resources that enhance the reader’s understanding. Moreover, if you’re submitting your paper to a journal, make sure to adhere to its guidelines regarding supplementary materials. Some journals have specific rules about what can be included and how it should be formatted.

In summary, supplementary materials are an excellent way to present comprehensive data without compromising the readability and coherence of your main results section. They allow for a depth of exploration and understanding while keeping your paper streamlined and focused on the key messages.

Proofread and Seek Feedback

Before finalizing your thesis, it is critical to meticulously review your results for both data accuracy and clarity in presentation. Reporting intricate details, especially numerical data, is prone to small errors, which can significantly impact the credibility of your research. Even minor inaccuracies can undermine the trustworthiness of your findings and affect the overall integrity of your work.

Furthermore, obtaining feedback from your supervisor and peers is an essential step in the refinement process. As an expert deeply involved in your research, you might find that your results section and visual aids appear completely logical and comprehensive. However, this perspective can be influenced by your familiarity with the subject matter. Your supervisor, with their experience and knowledge, can offer invaluable insights and advice, helping you to ensure that your research is communicated effectively. They are likely to have a keen eye for nuances that make your results both accessible and scientifically rigorous.

Equally important is feedback from your peers, particularly those who are not as familiar with your research. Their fresh perspective can be instrumental in identifying aspects of your presentation that might be confusing or unclear. They can point out areas where more explanation is needed or where the flow of information could be improved. This type of feedback is crucial because it helps you gauge how well your research can be understood by a broader audience, beyond experts in your field.

In summary, a thorough double-check of your data and presentation, coupled with feedback from both your supervisor and peers, is indispensable. This process not only enhances the accuracy and clarity of your results but also ensures that your research is communicated in a manner that is comprehensible and meaningful to a diverse audience. By embracing this collaborative approach, you can significantly elevate the quality and impact of your research paper.

Concluding Remarks

Crafting a results section is, in many ways, an art form. It requires a balance between clarity, organization, and the strategic presentation of data. Being a good researcher is as much about effective communication as it is about conducting quality research. Your responsibility extends beyond discovering new knowledge; it includes making sure that others can understand and build upon your findings. Ensuring that your results are accessible and comprehensible is a crucial part of this process.When crafting your results section, your goal should be to lead your readers through your research journey in a way that is logical, coherent, and easy to understand. By carefully structuring your results section, you not only convey your findings effectively but also enhance the overall impact and credibility of your research. Remember, the results section is where you present the ‘what’ of your research. Save the ‘why’ and ‘how’ for the discussion section. By following these guidelines, your results section will effectively convey your findings in a clear, concise, and unbiased manner, setting a strong foundation for your discussion and conclusions.