2.2 Theories, Approaches and Framework

Topics:

  1. Why Is Theory Important in Community Work?
  2. Systems Theory
  3. Anti-Oppressive Practice
  4. Anti-Racism
  5. Cultural Humility and Cultural Safety
  6. Indigenous Worldviews

Introduction

This chapter focuses on theories and why theories are required in community development practice. There are many theories in social work; however, we will discuss four main theories that community workers should integrate into their practice. These theories are Systems Theory, Anti-Oppressive Practice, Cultural Humility and Safety, and Indigenous Worldviews.

1. Why Is Theory Important In Community Work?

Theories help us make sense of the world – and communities – around us. They allow us to explore problems and solutions with evidence and research to support our practice, instead of grasping at straws. This is particularly important as community workers need to be aware of personal assumptions and biases that may interfere with effective community practice.

Theories may also help us avoid doing harm, unintentionally. Good intentions are not enough for community development work. As social service professionals, it is critical for us to be aware of the ways that our work can perpetuate harm and oppression – and intentionally take steps to disrupt harmful systems and practices today. In order for us to avoid repeating harmful mistakes of the past, community work must be grounded in anti-oppressive, anti-racist, and decolonizing practices and relations.

In order for us to explore different theoretical frameworks for working with communities, we must first understand what exactly we mean by community. At the most fundamental level, a community is based on relationships, identity, and a sense of belonging.

How can theories support our practice with diverse communities? What can they offer to community development work?

We will be introducing the following theoretical frameworks for community work:

  • Systems Theory
  • Anti-Oppressive Practice
  • Cultural Humility and Safety
  • Indigenous Worldviews
  • Anti Racism

Note: Keep in mind that this is not an exhaustive list. Continually evolving our practice, drawing on multiple theories from our toolbox, allows for deeper and broader understanding and engagement with diverse communities.

2. Systems Theory

Like every ecosystem, individuals require ongoing input (e.g. food, energy, relationships) in order to survive – and hopefully thrive. When a system’s needs are not met, we may feel out of balance, which prompts action. Preserving a state of balance (or equilibrium) is critical for systems to survive.

According to systems theory (Healy, 2005) :

  • Individuals do not live in silos (or isolation).
  • We are constantly interacting with multiple systems (e.g. family, neighbourhood, city, globe) across different levels.
  • Our interactions, whether big or small, have an inevitable ripple effect throughout the entire system.
  • All systems operate in relationships with other systems.

This perspective allows us to develop a holistic view of individuals and communities in our practice.

Figure 2.2.1 by System Theory by Sama Bassidj and Dr. Mahbub Hasan in Community Development Practice: From Canadian and Global Practices, CC-BY-NC-SA

Healy (2005) suggests that in addition to your self as the primary system, reflect on some of the following systems you interact with (from smallest to largest):

  • Microsystem – the small immediate systems in your day-to-day life (e.g. family/friends, workplace environment, classrooms, places of worship, etc.)
  • Mesosystem – the network of interactions between your immediate systems (e.g. how your family experience can impact your participation at school)
  • Exosystem – the larger institutions in society that impact your personal systems and networks (e.g. government agencies, economic systems, social policies, etc.)
  • Macrosystem – the intangible influences in society (e.g. ideologies, culture, common beliefs, social relationships and expectations, etc.)

3. Anti-Oppressive Practice

Q – What is the difference between more mainstream approaches and anti-oppressive practice (AOP)? How does AOP help communities understand problems as linked to social inequality?

Part of this section is adapted from:  Canadian Settlement in Action: History and Future by NorQuest College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

Oppression can be defined as the experience of widespread, systemic injustice (Deutch, 2011). It is embedded in the underlying assumptions of institutions and rules, and the collective consequences of following those rules. Oppression is often a consequence of unconscious assumptions and biases and the reactions of well-meaning people in ordinary interactions (Khan, 2018).

The following are some of the ways oppression can manifest itself:

  • Ableism: Oppression that assumes that differently abled people require “fixing” and that their personhood is defined by their disability (Eisenmenger, 2019).
  • Ageism: Oppression based on negative attitudes about a person based on their age (or perceived age), and the default orientation of access to public services towards people who are younger (Ontario Human Rights Commission, n.d.a).
  • Classism: Oppression that discriminates based on a person’s socio-economic class or caste (or perceived socio-economic class or caste) (Class Action, 2021).
  • Homophobia: Systemic discrimination against individuals based on their sexual identity or preference (Planned Parenthood, 2021a).
  • Racism: Systemic discrimination against individuals as a result of their real or perceived ethnicity (Ontario Human Rights Commission, n.d.b).
  • Sexism: Oppression that occurs via through expression of the idea that certain individuals are inferior solely because of their gender; it is similar to the concept of misogyny (the systemic hatred of women) (Illing, 2020).
  • Sizeism: Oppression based on a person’s body size and shape (Bergland, 2017).
  • Transphobia: Widespread antagonistic and systemic practices that target transgender individuals (people whose biological sex does not match the gender identity they have assumed) (Planned Parenthood, 2021b).
When we look through the Intersectionality lens there are at least 12 different areas in the lens where power comes and collides, and where it locks and intersects. These different areas look different for everyone. They include Race, Ethnicity, Gender identity, Class, Language, Religion, Ability, Sexuality, Mental Health, Age, Education, and Body size.
Figure 2.2.2 – Intersectionality Venn diagram by SylviaDuckworth is licensed under a CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 Generic license

Intersectionality is a core concept in the discussion of oppression. Crenshaw (1989) pioneered the term “intersectionality” to refer to instances in which individuals simultaneously experience many intersecting forms of oppression. Since individuals don’t exist solely as “woman”, “Black”, or “working class”, among others, these identities intersect in complex ways, and are determined by a set of interlocked social hierarchies.

Video: The urgency of intersectionality | Kimberlé Crenshaw. Ted Talk.

Now more than ever, it’s important to look boldly at the reality of race and gender bias — and understand how the two can combine to create even more harm. Kimberlé Crenshaw uses the term “intersectionality” to describe this phenomenon; as she says, if you’re standing in the path of multiple forms of exclusion, you’re likely to get hit by both. In this moving talk, she calls on us to bear witness to this reality and speak up for victims of prejudice.

 

Transcript

Therefore, all our oppressions are interconnected and overlapping. Intersectionality rejects the idea of “ranking” social struggles (sometimes referred to as “Oppression Olympics”), as this is divisive and unnecessary, undermining solidarity (the willingness of different individuals or communities to work together to achieve common goals).

In an intersectional analysis, a person’s identity is layered, and the presence (or absence) of oppression is context-specific. The same person could feasibly be oppressed in one situation, and the oppressor in another (for example, a Black man who experiences racism in the workplace but is domestically abusive). What is important is to look at the social forces that are at play and to remember that “the personal is always political”.

It would be difficult to discuss the importance of understanding oppression without understanding privilege. Garcia (2018) describes privilege as unearned social benefits or advantages that a person receives by virtue of who they are, not what they have done. Much like oppression, privilege can also be intersectional; however, because privilege is unearned, it is often invisible because those who benefit from it have been conditioned to not even be aware of its existence. Privilege is thus a very important concept because the relationship that community workers have with communities is often a privileged standing, as they have power over the lives of the communities they work with.

Video: What is Privilege ? By AS/IS.

 

Transcript

Among the most important roles that can be played by a community worker is that of an ally – when a person with privilege attempts to work and live in solidarity with marginalized peoples and communities. Allies take responsibility for their own education on the lived realities of oppressed individuals and communities and are willing to openly acknowledge and discuss their privileges and the biases they produce (Lamont, n.d.).

 A thorough understanding of power, privilege, and oppression can help community workers develop an anti-oppressive approach to their practice. Being able to engage in anti-oppressive practice requires community workers to be able to deconstruct and challenge the Great Canadian Myth and expressions of Canadian exceptionalism, and to be able to discuss the often-complicated role played by social service professionals in the perpetuation and execution of harmful government policies towards racialised communities (Clarke, 2016, p. 119). As such, an anti-oppressive approach requires community workers to continually and critically reflect on their work with communities and to challenge the status of “expert” assigned to them.

Anti-oppressive practice is also a strengths-based approach  in that the starting point of a conversation with communities is what they can do, not what they cannot do or are lacking. Strengths-based approaches separate people from their problems and focus more on the circumstances that prevent a person from leading the life they want to lead (Hammond & Zimmerman, 2012, p. 3).

Anti oppression approach addresses the prejudicial and inequitable relations that communities experience (Parada et al. 2011). Anti-oppressive social workers and community workers help communities understand that their problems are linked to social inequality and why they are oppressed and how to fight for change (Baines, 2011). Anti oppression practice addresses root causes of poverty and marginalization and promote collective actions by community.

4. Anti-Racism

Anti-Racism Framework

In this episode of Podcasting Social Work,  Dr. Valerie Borum, Professor and Director, School of Social Work, Toronto Metropolitan University, discussed about anti-racism framework, roots of racism, and its impact on communities, and how can we integrate anti-racism framework in social work and community development practice. If you have any questions, please contact us at mhasan@centennialcollege.ca. Podcasting Social Work” by Mahbub Hasan is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

5. Cultural Humility And Cultural Safety

Material in this section is adapted from Introduction to Human Services by Nghi D. Thai and Ashlee Lien is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

5.1 Cultural humility

Cultural humility is the ability to remain open to learning about other cultures while acknowledging one’s own lack of competence and recognizing power dynamics that impact the relationship.

Within cultural humility it is important to:

  • engage in continuous and critical self-reflection
  • recognize the impact of power dynamics on individuals and communities
  • embrace a perspective of “not knowing”
  • commit to lifelong learning

This approach to diversity encourages a curious spirit and the ability to openly engage with others in the process of learning about a different culture. As a result, it is important to address power imbalances and develop meaningful relationships with community members in order to create positive change. A guide to cultural humility is offered by Culturally Connected.

 

Cultural Humility (complete) by Vivian Chavez. “Cultural Humility: People, Principles and Practices,” is a 30-minute documentary by San Francisco State professor Vivian Chávez, that mixes poetry with music, interviews, archival footage, and images of community, nature and dance to explain what Cultural Humility is and why we need it. The film describes a set of principles that guide the thinking, behavior and actions of individuals and institutions to positively affect interpersonal relationships as well as systems change. These principles are: • Lifelong learning and critical self-reflection • Recognizing and changing power imbalances • Developing institutional accountability

 

Transcript

5.2 Cultural Safety

Culturally unsafe practices involve any actions that diminish, demean, or disempower the cultural identity and well-being of an individual.

According to Population Health Promotion and BC Women’s Hospital:

Culturally unsafe practices involve any actions that diminish, demean, or disempower the cultural identity and well-being of an individual. Creating a culturally safe practice involves working to create a safe space that is sensitive and responsive to a client’s social, political, linguistic, economic, and spiritual realities. Ultimately, adopting a cultural humility perspective is one of the most effective ways to enable cultural safety – one that will help clients feel safe receiving and accessing care.

Indigenous Cultural Safety and Cultural Humility

As a result of Canada’s legacy of colonization with Indigenous Peoples, working towards cultural safety and trust requires humility, dedication, and respectful engagement. Indigenous Cultural Safety is when Indigenous Peoples feel safer in relationships and communities.

According to BC Patient Safety and Quality Council, working towards culturally safe engagement with Indigenous communities requires:

  • Acknowledgement of the history of colonialism in Canada and the impacts of systemic racism.
  • A level of cultural awareness and sensitivity. (e.g. Provide a meaningful land acknowledgement. Get to know Indigenous Peoples from the Land you work and live on. Be a lifelong learner.)
  • Deep humility and an openness to learning. (e.g. Research local cultural practices and protocols. Read the Truth and Reconciliation Recommendations.)
  • Time for relationship building, connection, collaboration, and cultivating trust. (e.g. Work towards balancing power dynamics. Be mindful of experiences of intergenerational trauma in building relationships. Integrate trauma-informed community practices.)

According to San’yas Anti-Racism Indigenous Cultural Safety Training Program a commitment to Indigenous Cultural Safety recognizes that:

  • cultural humility aims to build mutual trust and respect and enables cultural safety
  • cultural safety is defined by each individual’s unique experience and social location
  • cultural safety must be understood, embraced, and practiced at all levels of community practice
  • working towards cultural safety is everyone’s responsibility

6. Indigenous Worldviews

Community development practice owes much of its ways of knowing, doing, and being to Indigenous communities worldwide. Indigenous values of interdependence and caring for all are at the heart of this practice.

According to activist and academic Jim Silver (2006), who is non-Indigenous:

The process of people’s healing, of their rebuilding or recreating themselves, is rooted in a revived sense of community and a revitalization of [Indigenous] cultures…The process of reclaiming an [Indigenous] identity takes place, therefore, at an individual, community, organizational, and ultimately political level. This is a process of decolonization that, if it can continue to be rooted in traditional [Indigenous] values of sharing and community, will be the foundation upon which healing and rebuilding are based. (p. 133)

Many Indigenous authors acknowledge one’s identity as intricately connected to community (Carriere, 2008). In fact, family, kinship, and community are viewed as a significant determinant of well-being (Kral, 2003). This community identity is often place-based, connected to the Land and one’s place of origin.

Baskin (2016) shares an example of an Indigenous community program that emphasizes the well-being of the community and family above that of the individual:

[At] Mino-Yaa-Daa (meaning “Healing Together” in the Anishnawbe language), [t]he individual is seen in the context of the family, which is seen in the context of the community… when an individual is harmed, it is believed that this affects all other individuals in that person’s family and community… By coming together in a circle, women learned that they were not alone, and that their situations and feelings were similar to those of other women… [building relationships and a community of empowered women] can only be achieved by individuals coming together in a circle. This kind of community-building cannot happen through individual counselling or therapy (pp. 164-165).

Attribution

Community Development Practice: From Canadian and Global Perspectives by Sama Bassidj, MSW, RSW and Dr. Mahbub Hasan MSW, Ph.D. is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

An Introduction to the Ecological Model

The Women and Children Health Policy Center (WCHPC). (2014, September 11). An Introduction to the Ecological Model in Public Health [Video].

Ecological Systems Theory

Ecological Systems Theory (EST), also known as human ecology, is an ecological/ system framework developed in 1979 by Urie Bronfenbrenner (Harkonen, 2007). Harkonen notes that this theory was influenced by Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory and Lewin’s behaviorism theory. Bronfenbrenner’s research focused on the impact of social interaction on child development. Bronfenbrenner believed that a person’s development was influenced by everything in the surrounding environment and social interactions within it. EST emphasizes that children are shaped by their interaction with others and the context. The theory has four complex layers called systems, commonly used in research. At first, ecological theory was most used in psychological research; however, several studies have used it in other fields such as law, business, management, teaching and learning, and education.

Figure 2.2.3 – Created by Denise Halsey

Previous Studies

EST has been used in many different fields, however, commonly, it is used in health and psychology, especially in child development (e.g., Heather, 2016; Esolage, 2014; Matinello, 2020). For instance, Walker et al. (2019) used an EST framework to examine risk factors for overweight and obese children with disabilities. The study focused on how layers of an ecological system or environment can negatively affect children with special needs in terms of weight and obesity. They found that microsystem such as school, family home, and extracurricular activities can impact overall health through physical activities and food selectivity. Furthermore, the second layer, mesosystem (e.g., family dynamic and parental employment), also can lead to an increase in children’s weight because of a lack of money to buy nutritious food. In addition, children may be socially isolated and excluded in ways that cause stress, and their parents might use food to reinforce or comfort them. The third layer the study adopted was the macrosystem. For example, some cultures discriminate against children with disabilities so that they face more difficulty gaining access to health services.

In the field of language teaching, Mohammadabadi et al. (2019) researched factors influencing language teaching cognition. They used an ecological framework to explore the factors influencing language teachers at different levels. They adopted the four systems from Bronfenbrenner’s theory for studying the issue. This study found that the ecological systems affect language teaching.  For example, the microsystem included a direct influence on teachers’ immediate surroundings, such as facilities, emotional mood, teachers’ job satisfaction, and linguistic proficiency. The mesosystem defined interconnections between teachers’ collaboration and their prior learning experience. The exosystem included the teaching program and curriculum and teachers’ evaluation criteria, while the macrosystem addressed the government’s rules, culture, and religious beliefs. In other words, researchers use EST to guide the design of their studies and to interpret the results.

Model of EST

Ecological Systems Theory of Development Model
Figure 2.2.4 – Model of EST – Ecological Systems Theory of Development   by Samsu Alam, contributor to Theoretical Models for Teaching and Research, edited by Joy Egbert and Mary Roe, CC-BY-NC.

Concepts, Constructs, and Propositions

The four systems that Brofenbrenner proposed are constructed by roles, norm and rules (see Figure 4.3.3). The first system is the microsystem. The microsystem as the innermost system is defined as the most proximal setting in which a person is situated or where children directly interact face to face with others. This system includes the home and child-care (e.g., parents, teacher, and peers). The second is the mesosystem. The mesosystem is an interaction among two or more microsystems where children actively participate in a new setting; for instance, the relationship between the family and school teachers. The third is the exosystem. This system does not directly influence children, but it can affect the microsystem. The effect is indirect. However, it still may positively or negatively affect children’s development through the parent’s workplace, the neighborhood, and financial difficulties. The outermost system is the macrosystem. Like the exosystem, the macrosystem does not influence children directly; however, it can impact all the systems such as economic, social, and political systems. The influence of the macrosystem is reflected in how other systems, such as family, schools, and the neighborhood, function (Kitchen et al., 2019). These four systems construct the EST which considers their influences on child or human development.

Bronfenbrenner (cited in Harkonen, 2007) noted that those environments (contexts) could influence children’s development constructively or destructively. As the proposition, the system influences children or human development in many aspects, such as how they act and interact, their physical maturity, personal characteristics, health and growth, behavior, leadership skills, and others. At the end of the ecological system improvement phase, Bronfenbrenner also added time (the chronosystem) that focuses on socio-history or events associated with time (Schunk, 2016). In summary, the views of this ecological paradigm is that environment, social interaction, and time play essential roles in human development.

Using the Model

There are many possible ways to use the model as teachers and parents. For teaching purposes, teachers can use the model to create personalized learning experiences for students. The systems support teachers and school administrators to develop school environments that are suitable to students’ needs, characteristics, culture, and family background (Taylor & Gebre, 2016). Because the model focuses on the context (Schunk, 2016), teachers and school administration can use the model to increase students’ academic achievement and education attainment by involving parents and observing other contextual factors (e.g., students’ peers, extra-curricular activities, and neighbor) that may help or inhibit their learning.

Furthermore, the EST model can support parents to educate and guide their children. It can prompt parents to assist their children in choosing their friends and finding good neighborhoods and schools. Additionally, they can build close connections to teachers, so they know their children’ skills and abilities. By involving themselves in schools, parents can positively influence their children’s educational context (Hoover & Sandler, 1997).

For research purposes, researchers can test and modify or refine the EST proposition, or they can find additional ways to measure it. Researchers also can develop questionnaires from the components or concepts and construct of EST. Additionally, the four levels of EST can be used by researchers to frame qualitative, quantitative, and mixed research (Onwuegbuzie, et.al., 2013).

Conclusion

We all begin as blank puzzle pieces, who we become is influenced by those around us, such as: family, parents, teachers, people, places, things, community, society, political systems, education and environment.

Figure 2.2.5 Photo by Mel Poole on Unsplash

At first, EST was used in children’s development studies to describe their development in their early stages influenced by the person, social, and political systems. Currently, EST is broadly applied in many fields. Schools or educational institutions can use EST to improve students’ achievement and well-being. Interaction between the family, parents, teachers, community, and political system will determine students’ development outcomes.

 

For More Information – Videos:

Social Theories

We live in a complex world with many factors that influence our behaviours.  As discussed in psychological theories, we learn from many areas including individual, family, peer and community.[1]  Substance use may be familial, a person may have watched a parent or caretaker use alcohol on special occasions or more frequently.  Perhaps you had a parent who smoked tobacco, and this may have played a role in whether you smoke.  These social connections that are critical for our development as babies, toddlers, youth and into adulthood play a role in what we do, how we act, and how we live.

Activities

  1. Brainstorm a list of things you do each day, from morning until night.
  2. Scratch out everything you do in a group.  What is left?
  3. How much of your daily interactions are with a group?
  4. How did you learn to do each activity you do daily?

Social connections are also important for our health.  Think back to the beginning days of the COVID-19 pandemic and how many people were negatively impacted by the social gathering restrictions.  Some people increased their substance use to cope with the isolation.[2]  Some people used technology to connect with family, friends, and even with their workplace.

Activities

  1. Brainstorm a list of things you did to cope with the isolation from the pandemic.
  2. Did you increase your substance use?
  3. How important is social connection in your life?
  4. Did technology help?

Social connection is an important factor in wellness and subsequently whether a person uses substances.[3]

Video: Social contact is good for your mental health – even if you don’t always feel like engaging with other people when you’re low or anxious. This video will show you ways you can build more social connection into your life.

Social learning theory suggests behaviour is influenced by the interaction of personal, social, and environmental factors including intrapersonal factors, interpersonal factors, institutional or organizational factors, community factors, and public policy.[4]  This is intersectionality.  If you have been negatively impacted by one of these factors, are you susceptible to a substance use disorder?  The research indicates yes; remembering it is one risk factor and does not mean it WILL lead to a substance use disorder.  This theory is often used in counselling in supporting individuals with substance use disorders as it allows supporters to focus on individual, environmental, and societal factors.

Food For Thought

  • Reflect on a happy memory from your childhood.
  • Identify everyone who was involved.
  • What were the factors that make this memory so wonderful?

The social factors that influence us are complex.  Many of the treatment models use a social-ecological approach, identifying factors like trauma, adverse childhood experiences, mental health, racism, as well as self-efficacy.

FURTHER READING

Chapter 5.0: Social Context and Physical Environment Models of Substance Misuse in Introduction to Substance Use Disorders by Patricia Stoddard Dare and Audrey Begun.

Footnotes

References

  • Figure 2.2.4 – Model of EST – Roe, J. E. A. M. (n.d.). Ecological Systems Theory – Theoretical Models for Teaching and Research. https://opentext.wsu.edu/theoreticalmodelsforteachingandresearch/chapter/ecological-systems-theory/
  • SocioEcological Theory of Addiction. (2016, March 11). [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RoSjNZbTixk
  • Doc Snipes. (2016, March 11). SocioEcological Theory of Addiction [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RoSjNZbTixk
  • Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems: 5 Forces Impacting Our Lives. (2021, December 1). [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g6pUQ4EDHe
  • The Women and Children Health Policy Center (WCHPC). (2014, September 11). An Introduction to the Ecological Model in Public Health [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rm00AzC-gEU
  • Hasan, M. (2022). Community development practice: From Canadian and global perspectives. Centennial College. https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/communitydevelopmentpractice.Licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.
  • Esolage, D. L. (2014). Ecological theory: Preventing youth bullying, aggression, and victimization. Theory into Practice. 53, 257–264.
  • Harkonen, U. (2007, October 17). The Bronfenbenner ecological system theory of human development. Scientific Articles of V International Conference PERSON.COLOR.NATURE.MUSIC, Daugavpils University, Latvia, 1 – 17.
  • Heather, M.F. (2016). An ecological approach to understanding delinquency of youth in foster care. Deviant Behavior, 37(2), 139 – 150.
  • Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., & Sandler, H. M. (1997). Why do parents become involved in their children’s education? Review of Educational Research, 67(1), 3–42. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543067001003
  • Kitchen, J. A, (list all authors in reference list) (2019). Advancing the use of ecological system theory in college students research: The ecological system interview tool. Journal of College Students Development, 60 (4), 381-400.
  • Martinello, E. (2020). Applying the ecological system theory to better understanding and prevent child sexual abuse. Sexuality and Culture, 24, 326-344
  • Mohammadabadi, A., Ketabi, S., & Nejadansari, D. (2019). Factor influencing language teaching cognition. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching. 9(4), 657 – 680.
  • Onwuegbuzie, A.J., Collins, K.M.T., & Frels, R.K. (2013). Foreword. International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches, 7(1), 2-8.
  • Schunk, D. H. (2016). Learning theory: An educational perspective.  Pearson.
  • Taylor, R. D., & Gebre, A. (2016). Teacher–student relationships and personalized learning: Implications of person and contextual variables. In M. Murphy, S. Redding, & J. Twyman (Eds.), Handbook on personalized learning for states, districts, and schools (pp. 205–220). Temple University, Center on Innovations in Learning.
  • Walker, M., Nixon, S., Haines. J., & McPherson, A.C. (2019). Examining risk factors for overweight and obesity in children with disabilities: A commentary on Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system framework. Developmental Neurorehabilitation, 22(5), 359 – 364.
  • Ecological Systems Theory by Joy Egbert and Mary Roe is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.
  • Baines, D.  Ed. (2011). Doing anti-oppressive practice: Social justice social work. Halifax:  Fernwood Press.
  • Baines, D. (2017). Doing anti-oppressive practice: Social justice social work (Third ed.). Fernwood Publishing.
  • Baskin, C. (2016). Strong helpers’ teachings: The value of Indigenous knowledges in the helping professions (Second ed.). Canadian Scholars’ Press.
  • Bergland, C. (2017, August 3). Sizeism is harming too many of us: Fat shaming must stop. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/the-athletes-way/201708/sizeism-is-harming-too-many-us-fat-shaming-must-stop
  • Carriere, J. (2008). Maintaining identities: The soul work of adoption and Aboriginal children. Pimatisiwin: A Journal of Aboriginal and Indigenous Community Health, 6(1), 61-80. Retrieved from http://www.pimatisiwin.com.
  • Clarke, J. (2016). Doing anti-oppressive settlement work in Canada: A critical framework for practice. In S. Pashang (Ed.), Unsettled settlers: Barriers to integration (3rd ed., pp. 115–137). de Sitter Publications.
  • Class Action. (2021). What is classism. https://classism.org/about-class/what-is-classism/
  • Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics, University of Chicago Legal Forum, (1, 8). http://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/uclf/vol1989/iss1/8
  • Deutsch, M. (2011). A framework for thinking about oppression and its change. Social Justice Research, 19(1), 193–226.
  • Eisenmenger, A. (2019, December 12). Ableism 101: What it is, what it looks like, and what we can do to fix it. Access  Living. https://www.accessliving.org/newsroom/blog/ableism-101/
  • Healy, K. (2005). Under reconstruction: Renewing critical social work practices. In S. Hick, J. Fook, & R. Pozzuto (Eds.), Social work: A Critical turn (pp. 219-230). Toronto: Thompson Educational.
  • Garcia, J. D. (2018). Privilege (Social inequality). Salem Press Encyclopedia. https://guides.rider.edu/privilege
  • Illing, S. (2020, March 7). What we get wrong about misogyny. Vox. https://www.vox.com/identities/2017/12/5/16705284/elizabeth-warren-loss-2020-sexism-misogyny-kate-manne
  • Khan, C. (2018). Social location, positionality & unconscious bias [PowerPoint presentation]. University of Alberta Graduate Teaching and Learning Program. https://www.ualberta.ca/graduate-studies/media-library/professional-development/gtl-program/gtl-week-august-2018/2018-08-28-social-location-and-unconscious-bias-in-the-classroom.pdf
  • Kral, M.J. (2003). Unikaartuit: Meanings of well-being, sadness, suicide and change in two Inuit communities. Final report to the National Health Research and Development.

 

 

License

Icon for the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License

Exploring Systems Navigation and Select Population Copyright © by Denise Halsey and Sunil Boodhai is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book