By Alexandra Moffatt, Bella Grisafi, Benien Al-Askar

Homelessness is a growing social issue. Media representations and cultural norms can shape our opinions, feelings, and perceptions of this social concern that is widely misunderstood. Homelessness is often referred to as an individual problem. Unfortunately, labels and judgments are placed on individuals which may perpetuate misinformation creating a lack of awareness of social, environmental, and physical factors that contribute to homelessness.

Our analysis of 45 Canadian newspaper articles from three different areas (Vancouver, Toronto, Hamilton) in Canada between 2019 to 2022. Our study examined homeless stereotypes in three Canadian newspaper outlets addressing topics, cause framing, and challenge cues. Of 45 articles, 26% were positive, 35% were negative, and 37% were neutral. Hamilton Spectator and Vancouver Sun were the most negative with 40%. Toronto Star had the most positive with 40%. Hamilton Spectator was the most neutral with 53.3%. Housing (91%) and government (48%) were the most prevalent homelessness topics covered within all articles.

Data showed that the most prevalent cause framing topics discussed were socialization factors (80%), followed by physical (62%) and psychological (28%). Hope was present in 44% of the articles, followed by responsibility (42%). Toronto Star most prevalent in addiction (20%) out of all the three newspapers. Vancouver Sun had the prevalent homelessness topics including substance abuse (46.6%), employment (20%), and police response (53.3%). The Hamilton Spectator was most prevalent in behavioral attributes (26.6%). Hamilton Spectator was most prevalent in psychological factors that were identified in 40% of the articles. Vancouver Sun most prevalent in the challenge cues regarding social inclusion (53.3%). The Hamilton Spectator most prevalent regarding challenge cues; responsibility (86.6%), followed by labeling (40%).

Our research findings provide insight that can help improve homeless representation while excluding judgment, labels, and biases within media channels. Considering socialization factors, cultural norms, and portrayal within media outlets can help get conversations started which not only distributes accurate discourse but can also shift perceptions, judgment, and create funding for people who desperately need it. Reducing stigma, negative tone, and harmful generalizations can make a meaningful impact in Canadian media that can be transmitted to other channels such as TV, radio, film, and magazines. Supporting non-profits, homeless shelters, and women’s shelters can create meaningful change and generate social inclusion for the homeless population. The first step in addressing this social issue is accurate representation, eliminating labeling, and creating a hopeful environment within media outlets. Educating and advocating for yourself and others eliminates harmful stereotypes and ushers in a compassionate perspective.

Research Report

Homelessness is a situational issue in which individuals face unhoused challenges such as mental and physical health concerns, stereotyping, blaming, stigma, and attribution. Media connects us but also shapes our opinions, perspectives, and norms. The way media is conveyed and communicated can further misinformation and inaccurate narratives. This research examines the representation of homelessness in 45 newspaper articles published between 2019 and 2022 during COVID-19 outbreaks focusing on homelessness topics, cause framing, and challenge cues. This study will be conducted by implementing theoretical perspectives with the use of agenda-setting and attribution theories. Furthermore, discussing how homelessness representation is conducted within Canadian media channels can create awareness and understand how public opinion is shaped in terms of responsibility, addiction, substance abuse, and labeling.

Literature Review

Homelessness has risen over the years; when COVID-19 first began Canadian public health officials came together to locate shelters for individuals experiencing homelessness. Chapados et al. (2023) discusses the high-risk factors of those experiencing homelessness in not only contracting the virus themselves but spreading it. Further research addresses outbreaks in Toronto that revealed a high-level of service reliance among the homeless population with limited capacity for public health as well as pandemic planning (Careless, 2022). Beyond high risk factors, Odd & Erfani (2023) discuss multiple surveys that determine specific aspects that have led to individuals becoming homeless. The most common reason being interpersonal and family issues (Odd & Erfani, 2023).

The survey that was conducted in 2018 depicted the homelessness rate was 39% which jumped to 43% during the pandemic in 2020 (Odd & Erfani, 2023). In 2018, financial loss also led to homelessness by 29% with a decrease to 18% in 2020 (Odd & Erfani, 2023). Low income was determined to be the main reason for becoming homeless, while interpersonal and family issues was an underlying independent variable that contributed to their living situation. Pre-pandemic, the rate for low income was 44% in 2018 however during the highest of COVID-19 this rate decreased to 30% in 2021 (Odd & Erfani, 2023). Addiction and substance use increased since the pandemic with 14% in 2018 to 25% in 2020 (Odd & Erfani, 2023). Along with these homelessness topics, economic frameworks were shifting with housing inflation on the rise placing additional pressure on homeowners during the outbreaks.

In the media, there is an existing negative stigma surrounding the social issue of homelessness. COVID-19 limited access to support and homeless shelters which only created further strain on the homeless population resulting in more having to turn to the streets (Chapados, 2023). This creates a narrative using attribution with those who are homeless being viewed as irresponsible, reckless, and unclean spreading disease (Chapados, 2023). The pandemic only magnified the grief, trauma, and dehumanization that the homeless population faced (Chapados, 2023). Chapados et al. (2023) addresses that people who are experiencing homelessness are shunned and separated from their communities, friends, and families. Beyond our research, it was discovered that media articles in Ottawa contributed to the stigmatisation of this social concern dismissing the issue of homelessness on an individual basis, therefore more concerned with how it relates to the city (Chapados, 2023). This is an example of Agenda Setting Theory, where media can shape public opinion and how media is transmitted making it matter more how the content is conveyed rather than the content itself.

Due to the limitations of shelters throughout COVID-19, many had no choice but to rely on alternative living situations such as living in closed business lobbies, alleys, and encampments. There was a decrease in the use of emergency shelters, but an increase in hotel use during the pandemic (Odd & Erfani, 2023). To address city complaints, for a short period of time homeless people were being put up in hotels by municipalities to lower the chance of a COVID outbreaks spreading. In previous years, the government withdrew and cut funding for municipalities trying to fight against homelessness (Careless, 2022).

In conclusion, homelessness is a concern that is not being addressed properly within the media and receiving minimal effort in resolving this social issue. The media plays a large role in shifting biases with their agenda of misinformation especially due to the increase in social media. This leads us to our research question: How do Canadian newspapers portray homelessness in the media during COVID-19?

Methods

Three well-known newspapers were chosen for this study: The Toronto Star, Hamilton Spectator, and Vancouver Sun. Three keywords that were used to find relevant articles for our study such as ‘homelessness’, ‘Covid-19’ and ‘homeless during pandemic.’ A search was conducted on three of the newspapers’ online portals with adjustments to timelines being applied to find articles from 2019-2022. The research encompassed an examination of the articles accessible to the general public. Given that the information was publicly available and lacked privacy issues, the study did not require any interventions entailed by the researchers and there was no deemed necessity for a formal ethics review. Each of the 45 chosen articles underwent coding for the specific categories outlined; the first one was regarding the demographic details which included the specific newspaper, article ID, and the date of publication. The second category addressed homelessness topics that were curated by our group. These topics include addiction, employment, housing, government, substance abuse, behavioral attributes, poverty, and police response. The third category included cause framing factors that focused on specific socialization, psychological, and physical factors. Lastly, there was a category devoted to challenge cues which included hope, social inclusion, responsibility, and labeling. Two coders coded all 45 articles within our sample population to ensure intercoder reliability, 87% was achieved.

Results

This study examined homeless stereotypes in three Canadian newspaper outlets addressing topics, cause framing, and challenge cues. Of 45 articles, 26% were positive, 35% were negative, and 37% were neutral. Hamilton Spectator and Vancouver Sun were the most negative with 40%. Toronto Star had the most positive with 40%. Hamilton Spectator was the most neutral with 53.3%. Housing (91%) and government (48%) were the most prevalent homelessness topics covered within all articles. Data showed that the most prevalent cause framing topics discussed were socialization factors (80%), followed by physical (62%) and psychological (28%). Hope was present in 44% of the articles, followed by responsibility (42%). Toronto Star most prevalent in addiction (20%) out of all the three newspapers. Vancouver Sun had the prevalent homelessness topics including substance abuse (46.6%), employment (20%), and police response (53.3%). The Hamilton Spectator was most prevalent in behavioral attributes (26.6%). Hamilton Spectator was most prevalent in psychological factors that were identified in 40% of the articles. Vancouver Sun most prevalent in the challenge cues regarding social inclusion (53.3%). The Hamilton Spectator most prevalent regarding challenge cues; responsibility (86.6%), followed by labeling (40%).

Discussion

All three newspaper channels predominantly covered homelessness topics such as employment, housing, government, substance abuse, and police response. The majority of the 45 articles collected were neutral, this suggests that the tone of the articles was different than our expected hypothesis. The most negative being Hamilton Spectator and Vancouver Sun. This suggests that the newspapers listed above are more likely to use behavioral attributes aligning with the narrative surrounding labels such as reckless and uncleanliness (Chapados, 2023). Ninety-one percent of articles discussed homelessness topics of housing. This suggests that media channels have increased conversation on housing and homeless shelters since the pandemic. Socialization factors addressed in eight percent of articles, this indicates that the socialization process and homelessness are directly related within the Canadian media. Flynn (2022) addressed that a “lack of social and institutional recognition and support drove the participants into increasing economic insecurity and eventually episodes of homelessness.” By incorporating topics of socialization in news channels it creates less blame directed at the individual. In terms of challenge cues hope and social inclusion are the most prevalent with suggested topics including homeless initiatives, funding, and support.

Limitations

The research study’s limitations are outlined in the following. Our study’s main concern was understanding attribution within media channels regarding homelessness since the COVID-19 outbreak. Our findings were limited from 2019-2022, we believe this to be vital for our analysis but a limitation, nonetheless. Widening the timeline to 10 years could help to find a more drastic increase or decrease in homelessness stereotypes. Additionally, our sample size is small, expanding the sample size to 100 articles could provide broader spectrum. This study in terms of coding uses key identifiers within our codebooks instead of images or visual messages which can be seen as a limitation within our research. Finally, our research used random sampling which is not common within previous research on this topic which can be a limitation to our findings that could be revised within future research.

Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusion

This study holds significant implications in how homelessness is communicated through media and how society places negative attribution upon these individuals. Themes within our research can expand past the pandemic and focus on alternative newspaper outlets in popular cities, rural areas, and even in relation to the U.S. This research affects everyone because living situations are not fixed, homeless women, men and teens should care how they are perceived in society, along with our Canada government and media channels that hold power in terms of bills, funding, media discourse. From an agenda-setting perspective, media outlets can shift narratives, project biases, and invoke prejudices within communities. Addressing topics with a specific tone and supportive framework can help reduce these negative biases in how this social issue is discussed. Comparing our research topics such as housing, government, substance abuse and attribution in other media channels such as films, TV, social media could be a beneficial comparison. Future research could analyze rural Canadian areas as well. An example in previous research is male vs. female homelessness in non-urban and urban settings which resulted in “white male privilege in non-urban settings” (Flynn, 2022). In conclusion, this research demonstrates the power media holds and how important it is to prioritize accurate representations which influence societal attitudes and opinions towards sensitive topics.

References

American Psychological Association. (2018). Apa Dictionary of Psychology. American Psychological Association. https://dictionary.apa.org/stereotype

American Psychological Association. (2023, November). Apa Dictionary of Psychology. American Psychological Association. https://dictionary.apa.org/attribution-theory

Brown, N., & Deegan, C. (1998). The public disclosure of environmental performance information–a dual test of media agenda setting theory and legitimacy theory. Accounting and Business Research, 29(1), 21-41. https://proxy.library.brocku.ca/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/public-disclosure-environmental-performance/docview/198196393/se-2

Canadian Observatory on Homelessness. (2021, April). What is homelessness? What is Homelessness? | The Homeless Hub. https://www.homelesshub.ca/about-homelessness/homelessness-101/what-homelessness

Careless, J. (2022, September). Trapped in liminality: homelessness in Toronto during COVID-19. Scholars Portal Journals. https://journals-scholarsportal-info.proxy.library.brocku.ca/details/07078552/v103i0003/222_tilhitdc.xml

Chapados, S., Roebuck, B. S., Macdonald, S.-A., Dej, E., Hust, C., & McGlinchey, D. (2023, June). Homelessness, covid-19, and discourses of Contagion. Homelessness, COVID-19, and discourses of contagion. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2667321523000604?via%3Dihub

Flynn, C., Couturier, P., Turcotte, S., Dubé, K., Levesque, C., Côté, P.-B., & Lapierre, S. (2023). How Social Responses to Child Sexual Abuse and Intimate Partner Violence Affect Homelessness Among Women in Two Rural Regions With Resource-Based Economies in Eastern Quebec. Violence Against Women, 29(3-4), 602-625. https://doi-org.proxy.library.brocku.ca/10.1177/10778012221083329

Odd, M., & Erfani, A. (2023, July 23). Homelessness in the district of Nipissing of Ontario, Canada before, at the onset and during the COVID-19 pandemic: a trend analysis (2018–2021). Scholars Portal Journals. https://journals.scholarsportal.info/details/14712458/v23inone/nfp_hitdontcpata.xml

Appendix 1

Definitions

Homelessness: is the situation of a person or individual, family, or community without stable, safe, permanent, appropriate housing, or the immediate prospect means and ability to acquire it (Canadian Observatory on Homelessness, 2021).

Stereotype: a set of cognitive generalizations and judgments about the characteristics of the members of a group and or social category. They are often exaggerated and negative rather than positive. These perceptions are often resistant when a observer encounters an individual with qualities that do not align with the stereotype (American Psychological Association, 2018).

Agenda Setting Theory: a communication theory that discusses how media perception can shape public opinion. This theoretical framework suggests that people rely on the media for information and interpretation of an issue (Brown, 1998).

Attribution Theory: a theoretical theory that discusses how people make sense of the world by focusing on an individual’s motives and behaviors whether internal or personal rather than the environmental or circumstantial evidence and or framework (American Psychological Association, 2023).

Appendix 2

Codebook Descriptions and Categories
		Description
1. Article Details	A. Specific Newspaper	1) Vancouver Sun 2) Toronto Star 3) Hamilton Spectator
	B. Article ID	“1ID”, “2ID”, and so on for each of the 3 newspaper channels.
	C.  Date of Publication	The date the newspaper was published.
Variable	Category	Description
2. Homelessness Topics	(0 = No, 1= Yes for each option listed)	8 major topics are covered below: 1) addiction 2) employment 3) housing 4) government 5) substance abuse 6) behavioural attributes 7) poverty 8) police response
	A. Addiction	Addiction is an emotional and physical dependence upon drugs or alcohol or any other activity such as sex, gambling, smoking, and exercise. Addiction can harm your appetite, daily life, relationships, and create a lack of focus.
	B. Employment	Employment can contribute to healthcare, mental health services, and socio-economic benefits that many consider a physical need. Employment can include mentions of welfare, disability pay, and taxes. Employment contributes to the standard of living and the necessities of basic human life.
	C. Housing	Housing offers protection and shelter. Housing also keeps humans safe from crime, violence, and extreme weather conditions. Housing can include mentions of homeless shelters.
	D. Government	A constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy within Canada that makes laws and enforces order. The Canadian Government is responsible for welfare, taxes, healthcare, policies, and the legalization framework for housing. Mentions of government can include homeless funding and initiatives.
	E. Substance Abuse	Substance abuse disorder is a psychological and behavioral symptom that is connected to the continued use and abuse of substances. Substance abuse can cause a psychological dependence on drugs or alcohol (alcohol, opioids, fentanyl, heroine).
	F.  Behavioral Attributes	Behavioral attributes are known as skills, motives, characteristics, and knowledge that all contribute to how society views you and how you view others. This can be used to label, predict, judge, and project prejudices against the homeless (violent, lazy, aggressive).
	G. Poverty	Poverty is not having enough money or wealth to sustain the basic needs of human life such as water, food, shelter, and clothing.
	H. Police Response	Indication of police activity affecting homeless people and their living situations. This may include arrests, charges, shootings, violations, trespassing, destruction, or removal of encampments and personal items.
3. Cause Framing		0 = No, and 1 = Yes for each option listed
	A. Socialization Factors	The socialization process is vital to learning values, rules, morals, motives, and skills, and being educated on the social norms that society expects of everyone. These expectations and norms are taught within the socialization process and can be influenced by newspapers, TV, and social media.
	B. Psychological Factors	Social and familial factors can impact personality and influence other factors such as addiction. Environmental factors such as schooling, friends, family, employment, and social media can contribute to relationships and self-esteem.
	C. Physical Factors	Factors include stereotyped physical illnesses and or physical trauma among unhoused people. This consists of illnesses such as HIV, bronchitis, tuberculosis, pneumonia, and substance use (overdose). Mentions of social distancing, isolation, emergency, and COVID-19 outbreak and protocol.
4. Challenge Cues	Challenge Cues	0 = No, and 1 = Yes for each option listed
	A. Hope	Stories and messages of overcoming poverty, stereotypes, and cues of optimism and success (action, compassion, support).
	B. Social Inclusion	Messages of inclusion, help, and acceptance towards segregated individuals in society due to poverty.
	C. Responsibility	Spreading blame upon the individual, the government, society, and their background or socioeconomic status.
	D. Labeling	Negative and demeaning language and labels to describe homelessness (volatile, hostile)