By: Bianca Cashin, Ben Von Gemmingen, Kusoom Ochani, Warren Green

Homelessness in Canada is a growing concern, and the stigmatization of homelessness can exacerbate associated challenges. Media representations can influence public perceptions of homelessness and contribute to stigmatization. This study analyzed headlines and images featured in 80 articles about homelessness from four Ontario publications between the years 2015 and 2024, identifying narrative frames and visual elements. Findings suggested that visibly homeless individuals are underrepresented in articles about homelessness, support locations and intersectional issues are rarely represented, and images tend towards representing individuals and small groups regardless of the scale of discussion indicated by the headline. This study has significant academic value, indicating potential sources of stigmatization in popular Ontarian media, bolstering the extremely limited research on media representation of homelessness, and establishing a methodology that can be adapted to future research on similar subjects. It also has significant practical implications, especially pertaining to the problems of representation in news media and the potential solutions.

Literature Review

Homelessness impacts approximately 10.5% of Canadians in their lifetime, and as much as 39% of Ontarians (Dionne et al., 2023). These statistics become more concerning when considering the current economic challenges Canadians are currently facing, including rising costs in areas such as food, shelter, clothing, and transportation (Statistics Canada, 2023). It is evident that homelessness will continue to be a relevant issue in Canada for the foreseeable future, resulting in a need for actionable research that can benefit policymakers and support providers.

We may better understand and combat homelessness by determining the social stigma surrounding it. Stigmatization is the sociocultural process that causes individuals to be identified by the public as an outsider, often with connotations that they are unaccepted and lack an identity beyond their stigmatized attributes (Goffman, 1963). Stigma can result in discrimination and ostracization, which can lead to significant impacts on an individual’s ability to access essential elements of civil life such as employment, shelter, and services (Goffman, 1963). Stigma can cause the stigmatized to seek supports less, research and response underfunding, and decreased recovery success (Lang et al., 2008).

The FINIS, short for Framework Integrating Normative Influences on Stigma, is a theoretical framework that provides a methodology for identifying stigmatizing factors and their impacts (Lang et al., 2008). FINIS covers a wide range of elements that contribute to the formation of stigma. Most relevant to this research is media context, which indicates that the combined elements of exposure, genre, and production characteristics result in affective community responses which lead to labels and stigmas (Lang et al., 2008). Media impacts stigma, and stigma can impact homeless people.

To analyze media, it is valuable to apply the Framing Theory. In communications, framing is understood as the emphasis on a given subject (Chong & Druckman, 2007). Frames contextualize ongoing events and reinforce particular interpretations of their subjects. To apply media framing to research, one must identify the issue or subject being framed and the different relevant frames that are applied to it, which in turn inform a coding scheme that can categorize individual texts by their associated frame (Chong & Druckman, 2007). Frames influence audiences and should be considered when discussing stigmatization in media.

The frames suggested for this study are drawn from Framing Homelessness for the Canadian Public: The News Media and Homelessness (Calder et al., 2011). Canadian homelessness media representation research is lacking, and the article suggests that further investigation is essential. It also puts forth a variety of identified media frames and a suggested methodology for conducting this research. Thematic vs. Episodic frames are essential; thematic frames are wider in scale and focus on societal concerns and trends, whereas episodic frames focus on individuals and specific events more narrowly (Calder et al., 2011).

News media contributes to public understanding of issues as a source of information, constructing common knowledge through the way it represents subject matter (Shields, 2001). Historical news media representations of homelessness focused on celebrations of singular relief efforts rather than identifying systemic causes, and stigmatized homeless people as threats or deviants (Shields, 2001). Homelessness is a highly intersectional issue, with poverty, food insecurity, mental health, physical health, and criminality all being positively correlated (Fitzpatrick & Willis, 2020). However, these intersections were rarely used as evidence for the systemic issues that create homelessness. Instead, factors like mental illness and criminality were regularly used to further stigmatize homeless people (Shields, 2001).

In conclusion, homelessness has historically been stigmatized through news media. Stigmatization is a widely accepted factor in determining access to supports and willingness to utilize them. There is a significant gap in contemporary research on media representation of homelessness in Canada, which leads to the research question of this study: How is homelessness represented in Ontarian newspaper headlines and photographs regarding framing, exposure, and textual implications?

Method

The four most widely circulated English-language newspapers in Ontario according to Muck Rack were selected for this study (n.d.). The Toronto Star, the National Post, the Mississauga News, and the Hamilton Spectator each had 20 articles selected using a systemic sampling method. Using the keyword “homeless”, each website was searched using filters to limit results to articles posted after 2015. The sample was formed using a systemic sampling method: every third article that featured an image was selected for the sample, excluding articles that discussed other countries. Each article was coded for three relevant categories: Framing, Location/Setting, and Subject.

Framing was coded based on the thematic vs. episodic frames suggested in Framing Homelessness for the Canadian Public (Calder et al., 2011). Headlines were identified as either thematic or episodic based on their specificity and suggestion towards larger social implications.

Location/Setting was coded for environmental visual elements in the images: green spaces, outdoor urban spaces, indoor spaces, the presence of temporary housing locations, and the presence of designated support locations including homeless shelters, food services, safe injection sites/addiction support clinics, and others.

Subject was coded to determine the people and concepts being communicated by the images. The number of people, their perceived identity as homeless, other, mixed groups, or uncertain, and any visible indicators of intersectional issues including drugs/addiction, criminality, food insecurity, and others were recorded. One image was coded by three coders to determine an intercoder reliability of 93.2%. The three coders then coded the remaining articles independently.

Results

Of 80 headlines, most featured a thematic frame (53.75%). The Mississauga News was an outlier, featuring 70% episodic frames while the other publications averaged 38.3% episodic framing. Urban spaces were the most prevalent location (47.5%), followed by indoor spaces (31.25%) and green spaces (23.75%). Temporary housing was visible in 35% of the images. Support locations were rarely depicted, with the majority being identified as other (9). There were 7 homeless shelters, 3 food service locations, and only 1 safe injection site/addiction support clinic, some of which were overlapping multi-purpose locations. Most images featured a single person (45%), followed by 2 people (21.25%), no people (18.75%), and groups of 5 or more (8.75%). Identifiable homeless subjects were the least common, with a total of 16 individuals and partial integration in 3 mixed groups. 24 individuals and 2 groups had uncertain identities, and 46 individuals and 2 groups were identified as other (not homeless). Representation of intersectional issues was uncommon. Criminality was the most common with 5 appearances, followed by food insecurity (3) and drugs/addiction (1). 3 additional intersectional issues were identified as other.

Discussion

Thematic framing was more common than episodic framing, especially when controlling for the Mississauga News as an outlier. However, regardless of the breadth of framing, images generally depicted only 1 or 2 people, which may deemphasize systemic causes and solutions for homelessness by underrepresenting the scale of the issue. Images from articles discussing homelessness depicted non-homeless or ambiguous individuals much more regularly than identifiably homeless individuals. The lack of excessive homeless identification could indicate a decline in reliance on stereotypical representation. It could also indicate less representation for homeless people overall, corroborated by over half of the individuals being identifiably homed. Representation was also limited by the lack of visible intersectionality and use of support locations. The underrepresentation of homeless individuals, homelessness as an issue, and intersectional issues are potentially stigmatizing factors.

Limitations

The study’s reliance on the algorithmic sorting systems featured on the official news publication’s websites could impact the accuracy of the sample in representing the wider news media industry in Ontario. Intercoder reliability was only determined with a single article, and there may have been greater variation between coder responses if all three coders had assessed all 80 articles. There were initially more categories in the codebook, however these were removed due to low reliability scores. The findings were limited in scale due to the small team size conducting the research. The categories coded for can not capture all potentially relevant information in determining representation. The study may not represent news media from other provinces and national cultures, as it only assessed English-language Ontarian publications. The COVID-19 pandemic was ongoing for multiple years of our sample period, which may have resulted in different types of coverage and images that are not representative of typical homelessness representation. Addressing these limitations by expanding on the scale of the study, modifying and adding coding categories, using a more rigorous coding methodology, and analyzing a wider range of publications could improve the accuracy of similar research.

Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusion

This research on media representation of homelessness in Ontarian news publications has several key contributions. Contributing to filling the gap in Canadian homelessness media provides another data point to use in wider analysis, as well as a point of reference for other studies to base their investigations on. The findings imply a severe lack of representation for homeless people in general, which may contribute to stigmatization as they are less visible. The prevalence of thematic framing does indicate a greater degree of systemic attribution and intersectional discussion, but this is not reflected in the photos being used by Ontarian news articles. Support locations that address the most prominent issues affecting homeless individuals are also underrepresented, which could cause the public to overlook or ignore such solutions and funding for support programs to be limited.

To counteract stigmatizing factors in photos used by the news, it may be beneficial to visually represent homeless people in ways that are unambiguous while avoiding stereotypes. Representing the intersectionality of homelessness would also be beneficial, providing visibility and awareness for issues like drug addiction, food insecurity and mental illness that de-simplifies the generalized image of a homeless person without playing elements up to generate stigma. Depicting support locations for critical services like shelters and food banks would increase public consciousness of these resources, potentially driving further support towards them as systemic aids rather than focusing on individual support events.

References

Calder, M. J., Hansard, A., Richter, S., Burns, K. K., & Mao, Y. (2011). Framing Homelessness for the Canadian public: the news media and Homelessness. Canadian Journal of Urban Research, 20(2), 1–19. Retrieved from https://www.uwinnipeg.ca/ius/docs/cjur/Calder-Hansard2011.pdf

Chong, D., & Druckman, J. N. (2007). Framing theory. Annual Review of Political Science, 10(1), 103–126. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.10.072805.103054

Dionne, M.-A., Laporte, C., Loeppky, J., & Miller, A. (2023, June 16). A review of Canadian homelessness data, 2023. Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/75f0002m/75f0002m2023004-eng.htm

Fitzpatrick, K. M., & Willis, D. (2020). Homeless and hungry: food insecurity in the land of plenty. Food Security, 13(1), 3–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-020-01115-x

Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity.

Government of Canada. (2024, January 16). Consumer price index: Annual Review, 2023. Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/240116/dq240116b-eng.htm?indid=9305-1&indgeo=0

Pescosolido, B. A., Martin, J. K., Lang, A., & Olafsdottir, S. (2008). Rethinking theoretical approaches to stigma: A framework integrating normative influences on stigma (finis). Social Science & Medicine, 67(3), 431–440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.03.018

Shields, T. G. (2001). Network News Construction of Homelessness: 1980–1993. The Communication Review, 4(2), 193–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/10714420109359468

Appendix 1

Definitions

Stigma: “a mark separating individuals from one another based on a socially conferred judgment that some persons or groups are tainted and “less than.” Stigma often leads to negative beliefs (i.e., stereotypes), the endorsement of those negative stereotypes as real (i.e., prejudice), and a desire to avoid or exclude persons who hold stigmatized statuses” (Lang et al., 2008).

Framing Theory: “The major premise of framing theory is that an issue can be viewed from a variety of perspectives and be construed as having implications for multiple values or considerations. Framing refers to the process by which people develop a particular conceptualization of an issue or reorient their thinking about an issue.” (Chong & Druckman, 2007).

Thematic Frame: Frame that “focuses attention on systemic roots of social problems and social responsibility” (Calder et al., 2011).

Episodic Frame: Frames which “focus on the individual, encouraging viewers to blame individuals for their situations” (Calder et al., 2011).

Appendix 2