24.7 Nutrition and Diet

Lindsay M. Biga; Staci Bronson; Sierra Dawson; Amy Harwell; Robin Hopkins; Joel Kaufmann; Mike LeMaster; Philip Matern; Katie Morrison-Graham; Kristen Oja; Devon Quick; Jon Runyeon; OSU OERU; OpenStax; Wendy Pomponio

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Explain how different foods can affect metabolism
Describe a healthy diet, as recommended by Canada’s Food Guide
List reasons why vitamins and minerals are critical to a healthy diet

The carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins in the foods you eat are used for energy to power molecular, cellular, and organ system activities. Importantly, the energy is stored primarily as fats. The quantity and quality of food that is ingested, digested, and absorbed affects the amount of fat that is stored as excess calories. Diet—both what you eat and how much you eat—has a dramatic impact on your health. Eating too much or too little food can lead to serious medical issues, including cardiovascular disease, cancer, anorexia, and diabetes, among others. Combine an unhealthy diet with unhealthy environmental conditions, such as smoking, and the potential medical complications increase significantly.

Food and Metabolism

The amount of energy that is needed or ingested per day is measured in calories. The nutritional Calorie (C) is the amount of heat it takes to raise 1 kg (1000 g) of water by 1 °C. This is different from the calorie (c) used in the physical sciences, which is the amount of heat it takes to raise 1 g of water by 1 °C. When we refer to “calorie,” we are referring to the nutritional Calorie.

On average, a person needs 1500 to 2000 calories per day to sustain (or carry out) daily activities. The total number of calories needed by one person is dependent on their body mass, age, height, gender, activity level, and the amount of exercise per day. If exercise is regular part of one’s day, more calories are required. As a rule, people underestimate the number of calories ingested and overestimate the amount they burn through exercise. This can lead to ingestion of too many calories per day. The accumulation of an extra 3500 calories adds one pound of weight. If an excess of 200 calories per day is ingested, one extra pound of body weight will be gained every 18 days. At that rate, an extra 20 pounds can be gained over the course of a year. Of course, this increase in calories could be offset by increased exercise. Running or jogging one mile burns almost 100 calories.

The type of food ingested also affects the body’s metabolic rate. Processing of carbohydrates requires less energy than processing of proteins. In fact, the breakdown of carbohydrates requires the least amount of energy, whereas the processing of proteins demands the most energy. In general, the amount of calories ingested and the amount of calories burned determines the overall weight. To lose weight, the number of calories burned per day must exceed the number ingested. Calories are in almost everything you ingest, so when considering calorie intake, beverages must also be considered.

To help provide guidelines regarding the types and quantities of food that should be eaten every day, follow Canada’s Food Guide. They have put the recommended elements of a healthy meal into the context of a place setting of food. Canada’s Food Guide Plate categorizes food into the food groups: fruits and vegetables, whole grains, and protein foods. The accompanying website gives clear recommendations regarding quantity and type of each food that you should consume each day, as well as identifying which foods belong in each category. The accompanying graphic (Figure 24.7.1) gives a clear visual with general recommendations for a healthy and balanced meal. The guidelines recommend to “Make half your plate fruits and vegetables.” The other half is grains and protein, with a slightly higher quantity of grains than protein. Make water your drink of choice.

Canada’s food guide provides extensive online resources for planning a healthy diet and lifestyle and is available in many languages including First Nations, Inuit and Metis. Resources can be found at Canada.ca/FoodGuide

Everyday Connections – Metabolism and Obesity

Obesity is an epidemic. The rate of obesity has been steadily rising since the 1980s. Approximately 1 in 4 adult Canadians are obese today. Over the past 30 years obesity rates among children and youth in Canada have nearly tripled.

Children and youth who are obese are at higher risk of developing a range of health problems, and weight issues in childhood are likely to persist into adulthood. For example, obese children have a high chance of remaining obese as adults.

Obesity is defined by the body mass index (BMI), which is a measure of an individual’s weight-to-height ratio. The normal, or healthy, BMI range is between 18.5 and 24.9 kg/m². Overweight is defined as a BMI of 25 to 29.9 kg/m², and obesity is considered to be a BMI greater than 30 kg/m². Obesity can arise from a number of factors, including overeating, poor diet, sedentary lifestyle, limited sleep, genetic factors, and even diseases or drugs. Severe obesity (morbid obesity) or long-term obesity can result in serious medical conditions, including coronary heart disease; type 2 diabetes; endometrial, breast, or colon cancer; hypertension (high blood pressure); dyslipidemia (high cholesterol or elevated triglycerides); stroke; liver disease; gall bladder disease; sleep apnea or respiratory diseases; osteoarthritis; and infertility. Research has shown that losing weight can help reduce or reverse the complications associated with these conditions.

https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/reports-publications/obesity-canada-snapshot.html

https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/childhood-obesity.html

Vitamins

Vitamins are organic compounds found in foods and are a necessary part of the biochemical reactions in the body. They are involved in a number of processes, including mineral and bone metabolism, and cell and tissue growth, and they act as cofactors for energy metabolism. The B vitamins play the largest role of any vitamins in metabolism (Table 24.3 and Table 24.4).

You get most of your vitamins through your diet, although some can be formed from the precursors absorbed during digestion. For example, the body synthesizes vitamin A from the β-carotene in orange vegetables like carrots and sweet potatoes. Vitamins are either fat-soluble or water-soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K, are absorbed through the intestinal tract with lipids in chylomicrons. Vitamin D is also synthesized in the skin through exposure to sunlight. Because they are carried in lipids, fat-soluble vitamins can accumulate in the lipids stored in the body. If excess vitamins are retained in the lipid stores in the body, hypervitaminosis can result.

Water-soluble vitamins, including the eight B vitamins and vitamin C, are absorbed with water in the gastrointestinal tract. These vitamins move easily through bodily fluids, which are water based, so they are not stored in the body. Excess water-soluble vitamins are usually excreted in the urine. Therefore, hypervitaminosis of water-soluble vitamins rarely occurs, except with an excess of vitamin supplements.

Fat-soluble Vitamins (Table 24.3)
Vitamin and alternative name	Sources	Recommended daily allowance	Function	Problems associated with deficiency
A retinal or β-carotene	Yellow and orange fruits and vegetables, dark green leafy vegetables, eggs, milk, liver	700–900 µg	Eye and bone development, immune function	Night blindness, epithelial changes, immune system deficiency
D cholecalciferol	Dairy products, egg yolks; also synthesized in the skin from exposure to sunlight	5–15 µg	Aids in calcium absorption, promoting bone growth	Rickets, bone pain, muscle weakness, increased risk of death from cardiovascular disease, cognitive impairment, asthma in children, cancer
E tocopherols	Seeds, nuts, vegetable oils, avocados, wheat germ	15 mg	Antioxidant	Anemia
K phylloquinone	Dark green leafy vegetables, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage	90–120 µg	Blood clotting, bone health	Hemorrhagic disease of newborn in infants; uncommon in adults

Water-soluble Vitamins (Table 24.4)
Vitamin and alternative name	Sources	Recommended daily allowance	Function	Problems associated with deficiency
B₁ thiamine	Whole grains, enriched bread and cereals, milk, meat	1.1–1.2 mg	Carbohydrate metabolism	Beriberi, Wernicke-Korsikoff syndrome
B₂ riboflavin	Brewer’s yeast, almonds, milk, organ meats, legumes, enriched breads and cereals, broccoli, asparagus	1.1–1.3 mg	Synthesis of FAD for metabolism, production of red blood cells	Fatigue, slowed growth, digestive problems, light sensitivity, epithelial problems like cracks in the corners of the mouth
B₃ niacin	Meat, fish, poultry, enriched breads and cereals, peanuts	14–16 mg	Synthesis of NAD for metabolism, nerve function, cholesterol production	Cracked, scaly skin; dementia; diarrhea; also known as pellagra
B₅ pantothenic acid	Meat, poultry, potatoes, oats, enriched breads and cereals, tomatoes	5 mg	Synthesis of coenzyme A in fatty acid metabolism	Rare: symptoms may include fatigue, insomnia, depression, irritability
B₆ pyridoxine	Potatoes, bananas, beans, seeds, nuts, meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dark green leafy vegetables, soy, organ meats	1.3–1.5 mg	Sodium and potassium balance, red blood cell synthesis, protein metabolism	Confusion, irritability, depression, mouth and tongue sores
B₇ biotin	Liver, fruits, meats	30 µg	Cell growth, metabolism of fatty acids, production of blood cells	Rare in developed countries; symptoms include dermatitis, hair loss, loss of muscular coordination
B₉ folic acid	Liver, legumes, dark green leafy vegetables, enriched breads and cereals, citrus fruits	400 µg	DNA/protein synthesis	Poor growth, gingivitis, appetite loss, shortness of breath, gastrointestinal problems, mental deficits
B₁₂ cyanocobalamin	Fish, meat, poultry, dairy products, eggs	2.4 µg	Fatty acid oxidation, nerve cell function, red blood cell production	Pernicious anemia, leading to nerve cell damage
C ascorbic acid	Citrus fruits, red berries, peppers, tomatoes, broccoli, dark green leafy vegetables	75–90 mg	Necessary to produce collagen for formation of connective tissue and teeth, and for wound healing	Dry hair, gingivitis, bleeding gums, dry and scaly skin, slow wound healing, easy bruising, compromised immunity; can lead to scurvy

Minerals

Minerals in food are inorganic compounds that work with other nutrients to ensure the body functions properly. Minerals cannot be made in the body; they come from the diet. The amount of minerals in the body is small—only 4 percent of the total body mass—and most of that consists of the minerals that the body requires in moderate quantities: potassium, sodium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and chloride.

The most common minerals in the body are calcium and phosphorous, both of which are stored in the skeleton and necessary for the hardening of bones. Most minerals are ionized, and their ionic forms are used in physiological processes throughout the body. Sodium and chloride ions are electrolytes in the blood and extracellular tissues, and iron ions are critical to the formation of hemoglobin. Many minerals are used as cofactors and coenzymes in metabolic processes. There are additional trace minerals that are still important to the body’s functions, but their required quantities are much lower.

Like vitamins, minerals can be consumed in toxic quantities (although it is rare). A healthy diet includes most of the minerals your body requires, so supplements and processed foods can add potentially toxic levels of minerals. Table 24.5 and Table 24.6 provide a summary of minerals and their function in the body.

Major Minerals (Table 24.5)
Mineral	Sources	Recommended daily allowance	Function	Problems associated with deficiency
Potassium	Meats, some fish, fruits, vegetables, legumes, dairy products	4700 mg	Nerve and muscle function; acts as an electrolyte	Hypokalemia: weakness, fatigue, muscle cramping, gastrointestinal problems, cardiac problems
Sodium	Table salt, milk, beets, celery, processed foods	2300 mg	Blood pressure, blood volume, muscle and nerve function	Rare
Calcium	Dairy products, dark green leafy vegetables, blackstrap molasses, nuts, brewer’s yeast, some fish	1000 mg	Bone structure and health; nerve and muscle functions, especially cardiac function; blood cloting	Slow growth, weak and brittle bones
Phosphorous	Meat, milk	700 mg	Bone formation, metabolism, ATP production	Rare
Magnesium	Whole grains, nuts, leafy green vegetables	310–420 mg	Enzyme activation, production of energy, regulation of other nutrients; enzyme cofactor (essential for metabolism)	Agitation, anxiety, sleep problems, nausea and vomiting, abnormal heart rhythms, low blood pressure, muscular problems
Chloride	Most foods, salt, vegetables, especially seaweed, tomatoes, lettuce, celery, olives	2300 mg	Balance of body fluids, digestion	Loss of appetite, muscle cramps

Trace Minerals (Table 24.6)
Mineral	Sources	Recommended daily allowance	Function	Problems associated with deficiency
Iron	Meat, poultry, fish, shellfish, legumes, nuts, seeds, whole grains, dark leafy green vegetables	8–18 mg	Transport of oxygen in blood, production of ATP	Anemia, weakness, fatigue
Zinc	Meat, fish, poultry, cheese, shellfish	8–11 mg	Immunity, reproduction, growth, blood clotting, insulin and thyroid function	Loss of appetite, poor growth, weight loss, skin problems, hair loss, vision problems, lack of taste or smell
Copper	Seafood, organ meats, nuts, legumes, chocolate, enriched breads and cereals, some fruits and vegetables	900 µg	Red blood cell production, nerve and immune system function, collagen formation, acts as an antioxidant; enzyme cofactor (essential for metabolism)	Anemia, low body temperature, bone fractures, low white blood cell concentration, irregular heartbeat, thyroid problems
Iodine	Fish, shellfish, garlic, lima beans, sesame seeds, soybeans, dark leafy green vegetables	150 µg	Thyroid function	Hypothyroidism: fatigue, weight gain, dry skin, temperature sensitivity
Sulfur	Eggs, meat, poultry, fish, legumes	None	Component of amino acids; enzyme cofactor	Protein deficiency
Fluoride	Fluoridated water	3–4 mg	Maintenance of bone and tooth structure	Increased cavities, weak bones and teeth
Manganese	Nuts, seeds, whole grains, legumes	1.8–2.3 mg	Formation of connective tissue and bones, blood clotting, sex hormone development, metabolism, brain and nerve function; enzyme cofactor (essential for metabolism)	Infertility, bone malformation, weakness, seizures
Cobalt	Fish, nuts, leafy green vegetables, whole grains	None	Component of B₁₂	None
Selenium	Brewer’s yeast, wheat germ, liver, butter, fish, shellfish, whole grains	55 µg	Antioxidant, thyroid function, immune system function	Muscle pain
Chromium	Whole grains, lean meats, cheese, black pepper, thyme, brewer’s yeast	25–35 µg	Insulin function	High blood sugar, triglyceride, and cholesterol levels
Molybdenum	Legumes, whole grains, nuts	45 µg	Cofactor for enzymes	Rare

Chapter Review

Nutrition and diet affect your metabolism. More energy is required to break down fats and proteins than carbohydrates; however, all excess calories that are ingested will be stored as fat in the body. On average, a person requires 1500 to 2000 calories for normal daily activity, although routine exercise will increase that amount. If you ingest more than that, the remainder is stored for later use. Conversely, if you ingest less than that, the energy stores in your body will be depleted. Both the quantity and quality of the food you eat affect your metabolism and can affect your overall health. Eating too much or too little can result in serious medical conditions, including cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes.

Vitamins and minerals are essential parts of the diet. They are needed for the proper function of metabolic pathways in the body. Vitamins are not stored in the body, so they must be obtained from the diet or synthesized from precursors available in the diet. Minerals are also obtained from the diet, but they are also stored, primarily in skeletal tissues.

Review Questions

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Weight loss and weight gain are complex processes. What are some of the main factors that influence weight gain in people?

2. Some low-fat or non-fat foods contain a large amount of sugar to replace the fat content of the food. Discuss how this leads to increased fat in the body (and weight gain) even though the item is non-fat.

Glossary

body mass index (BMI): relative amount of body weight compared to the overall height; a BMI ranging from 18–24.9 is considered normal weight, 25–29.9 is considered overweight, and greater than 30 is considered obese

calorie: amount of heat it takes to raise 1 kg (1000 g) of water by 1 °C

minerals: inorganic compounds required by the body to ensure proper function of the body

vitamins: organic compounds required by the body to perform biochemical reactions like metabolism and bone, cell, and tissue growth

Solutions

Answers for Critical Thinking Questions

Factors that influence weight gain are food intake (both quantity and quality), environmental factors, height, exercise level, some drugs or disease states, and genes.
Although these foods technically do not have fat added, many times a significant amount of sugar is added to sweeten the food and make it taste better. These foods are non-fat; however, they can lead to significant fat storage or weight gain because the excess sugar is broken down into pyruvate, but overloads the Krebs cycle. When this happens, the sugar is converted into fat through lipogenesis and stored in adipose tissues.

This work, Anatomy & Physiology, is adapted from Anatomy & Physiology by OpenStax, licensed under CC BY. This edition, with revised content and artwork, is licensed under CC BY-SA except where otherwise noted.

Images, from Anatomy & Physiology by OpenStax, are licensed under CC BY except where otherwise noted.

Access the original for free at https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/1-introduction.

License

Icon for the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License

Mohawk - PN Structure & Function of the Human Body Copyright © 2019 by Lindsay M. Biga, Staci Bronson, Sierra Dawson, Amy Harwell, Robin Hopkins, Joel Kaufmann, Mike LeMaster, Philip Matern, Katie Morrison-Graham, Kristen Oja, Devon Quick, Jon Runyeon, OSU OERU, and OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.