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Grzywacz and Keyes (2004) found that in addition to personal health behaviours, such as regular exercise, healthy weight, and not smoking, social behaviours, including involvement in religious- related activities, have been shown to be positively related to optimal health. However, it is not only those who are involved in a specific religion that benefit, but so too do those identified as being spiritual. According to Greenfield, Vaillant, and Marks (2009) religiosity refers to engaging with a formal religious group’s doctrines, values, traditions, and co-members. In contrast, spirituality refers to an individual’s intrapsychic sense of connection with something transcendent (that which exists apart from an not limited by the material universe) and the subsequent feelings of awe, gratitude, compassion, and forgiveness. Research has demonstrated a strong relationship between spirituality and psychological well-being, irrespective of an individual’s religious participation (Vaillant, 2008). Additionally, Sawatzky, Ratner, & Chiu (2005) found that spirituality was related to a higher quality of life for both individuals and societies.

Based on reports from the 2005 National Survey of Midlife in the United States, Greenfield et al. (2009) found that higher levels of spirituality were associated with lower levels of negative affect and higher levels of positive affect, personal growth, purpose in life, positive relationships with others, self-acceptance, environmental mastery, and autonomy. In contrast, formal religious participation was only associated with higher levels of purpose in life and personal growth among just older adults and lower levels of autonomy. In summary, it appears that formal religious participation and spirituality relate differently to an individual’s overall psychological well-being.

Age: Older individuals identify religion/spirituality as being more important in their lives than those younger (Beit-Hallahmi & Argyle, 1998). This age difference has been explained by several factors including that religion and spirituality assist older individuals in coping with age- related losses, provide opportunities for socialization and social support in later life, and demonstrate a cohort effect in that older individuals were socialized more to be religious and spiritual than those younger (Greenfield et al., 2009).

Gender: In the United States, women report identifying as being more religious and spiritual than men do (de Vaus & McAllister, 1987). According to the Pew Research Center (2016), women in the United States are more likely to say religion is very important in their lives than men (60% vs. 47%). American women also are more likely than American men to say they pray daily (64% vs. 47%) and attend religious services at least once a week (40% vs. 32%). Theories to explain this gender difference include that women may benefit more from the social-relational aspects of religion/spirituality because social relationships more strongly influence women’s mental health. Additionally, women have been socialized to internalize the behaviours linked with religious values, such as cooperation and nurturance, more than males (Greenfield et al., 2009).

Worldwide: To measure the religious beliefs and practices of men and women around the world, the Pew Research Center (2016) conducted surveys of the general population in 84 countries between 2008 and 2015. Overall, an estimated 83% of women worldwide identified with a religion compared with 80% of men. This equaled 97 million more women than men identifying with a religion. There were no countries in which men were more religious than women by 2 percentage points or more. Among Christians, women reported higher rates of weekly church attendance and higher rates of daily prayer. In contrast, Muslim women and Muslim men showed similar levels of religiousness, except frequency of attendance at worship services. Because of religious norms, Muslim men worshiped at a mosque more often than Muslim women. Similarly, Jewish men attended a synagogue more often than Jewish women. In Orthodox Judaism, communal worship services cannot take place unless a minyan, or quorum of at least 10 Jewish men, is present, thus insuring that men will have high rates of attendance. Only in Israel, where roughly 22% of all Jewish adults self-identify as Orthodox, did a higher percentage of men than women report engaging in daily prayer.

In 2021, more than 450 ethnic or cultural origins were reported in Canada, with “Canadian” being the most common, identified by 5.7 million people, followed by “English” (5.3 million), “Irish” and “Scottish” (4.4 million each), and “French” (4.0 million) (Statistics Canada, 2022). Religious affiliation in Canada has seen significant changes; over half of the population (53.3%) identified as Christian, a sharp decline from 67.3% in 2011 and 77.1% in 2001. Conversely, the percentage of individuals reporting no religious affiliation more than doubled, increasing from 16.5% in 2001 to 34.6% in 2021. Additionally, minority religious groups have grown rapidly over the past two decades, with Muslims increasing from 2.0% to 4.9%, Hindus from 1.0% to 2.3%, and Sikhs from 0.9% to 2.1%. Racialized populations have also expanded, with South Asians (7.1%), Chinese (4.7%), and Black Canadians (4.3%) accounting for 16.1% of the total population. The distribution of racialized groups varies by region, with South Asians, Chinese, and Black populations most prominent in Ontario, while Black and Arab groups are largest in Quebec (Statistics Canada, 2022).

Reference
Statistics Canada. (2022). *Ethnocultural and religious diversity – 2021 Census*. Retrieved from https://www.statcan.gc.ca