7.4 Challenges Families Face

Introduction

As the structure of family changes over time, so do the challenges families face. Events like divorce and remarriage present new difficulties for families and individuals. Other long-standing domestic issues, such as abuse, continue to strain the health and stability of families.

Divorce and Remarriage

Divorce, while fairly common and accepted in modern Canadian society, was once a word that would only be whispered and was accompanied by gestures of disapproval. Prior to the introduction of the Divorce Act in 1968 there was no federal divorce law in Canada. In provincial jurisdictions where there were divorce laws, spouses had to prove adultery or cruelty in court. The 1968 Divorce Act broadened the grounds for divorce to include mental and physical cruelty, desertion, and/or separation for more than three years, and imprisonment. In 1986, the Act was amended again to make “breakdown of marriage” the sole ground for divorce. Couples could divorce after one year’s separation, and there was no longer a requirement to prove “fault” by either spouse.

These legislative changes had immediate consequences on the divorce rate. In 1961, divorce was generally uncommon, affecting only 36 out of every 100,000 married persons. In 1969, the year after the introduction of the Divorce Act, the number of divorces doubled from 55 divorces per 100,000 population to 124. The divorce rate peaked in 1987, after the 1986 amendment, at 362 divorces per 100,000 population. Over the last quarter century divorce rates have dropped steadily, reaching 221 divorces per 100,000 population in 2005 (Kelly, 2010). The dramatic increase in divorce rates after the 1960s has been associated with the liberalization of divorce laws (as noted above); the shift in societal makeup, including the increase of women entering the workforce (Michael, 1978); and marital breakdowns in the large cohort of baby boomers (Kelly, 2010). The decrease in divorce rates can be attributed to two probable factors: an increase in the age at which people get married, and an increased level of education among those who marry — both of which have been found to promote greater marital stability.

So what ‘causes’ divorce? While more young people are choosing to postpone or opt out of marriage, those who enter into the union do so with the expectation that it will last. A great deal of marital problems can be related to stress, especially financial stress. Although officially, 95% of divorce cases can be attributed to ‘no fault’; 3% cite adultery; and 2% cite mental or physical cruelty. Reasons such as lack of compatibility, lack of communication, constant arguing and irreconcilable differences reveal that divorcing couples may have different values or goals, unproductive arguing or even avoidant behaviours (Buscho, 2020). Additionally, a lack of intimacy, marrying too young, addiction, and mental/physical illness and disability are also cited as common reasons for divorce (Buscho, 2020).

Making Connections: Sociological Research

Do Half of all Marriages end in Divorce?

It is often cited that half of all marriages end in divorce. This statistic has made many people cynical when it comes to marriage, but it is misleading. A closer look at the data reveals a different story. For example, using Statistics Canada data from 2020 that show a marriage rate of 2.6 (per 1,000 people) and a divorce rate of 1.13, it would appear that less than one-half of all marriages failed (Stechyson, 2024). Another way to calculate divorce rates is the total divorce rate, which projects how many new marriages would be expected to fail after 30 years based on the divorce rate by marriage duration observed in a given year. In Canada, the total divorce rate figure reached a high of 50.6% in 1987, after the Divorce Act was amended to allow divorces after just one year of separation (rather than the mandatory three years previously). Since then, the total divorce rate has remained steady at between 35% and 42%. In 2008, 40.7% of marriages were projected to end before their 30th anniversary (Employment and Social Development Canada, 2014a). Sociologists can also calculate divorce rates through a cohort study. For instance, research could determine the percentage of marriages that are intact after, say, five or seven years, compared to marriages that have ended in divorce after five or seven years. As illustrated, different methodologies and different interpretations can lead to contradictory, and even misleading results.

Children of Divorce and Remarriage

Divorce and remarriage can be stressful for partners and children alike. Divorce is often justified by the notion that children are better off in a divorced family than in a family with parents who do not get along. Others argue that parents who divorce sacrifice their children’s well-being to pursue their own happiness.

Research suggests that separating out factors of the divorce, especially whether or not the divorce is accompanied by parental conflict, is key to determining whether divorce has a significant negative impact on children (Amato and Keith, 1991). Children are often confused and frightened by the threat to their family security or may even feel responsible for the divorce (Amato, 2000). In high-conflict homes, children benefit from divorce and the subsequent decrease in conflict. Most divorces however come out of lower-conflict homes, and children from those homes may be more negatively impacted by the stress of the divorce than the stress of unhappiness in the marriage (Amato, 2000). On the other hand, Amato and Keith have argued that the overall the effect of divorce on children’s well-being is relatively weak and has been declining over time (Amato and Keith, 1991).

In Canada, approximately 18% of children aged 1 -17 experienced their parents’ separation or divorce (Statistics Canada, 2022). Approximately 24% of children were between the ages of 12-17 at the time of the separation or divorce (Statistics Canada, 2022).  Research suggests that children’s ability to deal with a divorce may depend on their age. Divorce may be most difficult for school-aged children, as they are old enough to understand the separation but not old enough to understand the reasoning behind it. Older teenagers are more likely to recognize the conflict that led to the divorce but may still feel fear, loneliness, guilt, and pressure to choose sides. Infants and preschool-age children may suffer the heaviest impact from the loss of routine that the marriage offered (Temke, 2006).

Proximity to parents also makes a difference in a child’s well-being after divorce. Recent data from Canada reports that approximately 21% of children had equal time with both parents; and 36% had regular visits (Statistics Canada, 2022). Approximately 19% of children had no contact at all (Statistics Canada, 2022). Research suggests that children with joint living arrangements tend to have better social skills and emotional regulation than those who are raised by one parent only. Importantly, strong parent-child relationships can greatly improve a child’s adjustment to divorce (Temke, 2006).

Making Connections: Sociological Research

Corporal Punishment

News reports in June 2013 broke the sensational story of dozens of children being apprehended by Child and Family Services from a small Old Order Mennonite community in southern Manitoba. Several members of the community were charged by police with assault when they received reports that children had been disciplined using a leather strap, whip, and cattle prod (Hitchen, 2013). The 1892 law that permits the use of corporal punishment for children in Canada was upheld by a Supreme Court ruling in 2004 within certain restrictions, but corporal punishment remains a controversial issue in Canada (CBC News, 2004).

Physical abuse of children may come in the form of beating, kicking, throwing, choking, hitting with objects, burning, or other methods. Injury inflicted by such behaviour is considered abuse even if the parent or caregiver did not intend to harm the child. Other types of physical contact that are characterized as discipline (spanking, for example) are not considered abuse as long as no injury results. The Supreme Court ruling stated that teachers and parents can use reasonable corrective force against children between the ages of 2 and 12 years old as long as the force is “minor” and of “a transitory and trifling nature” (CBC News, 2004). The court ruled that it was unacceptable to strike a child with an object, like a strap or whip, and striking a child in the head was also unacceptable.

This issue is controversial among modern-day Canadians. While some parents feel that physical discipline, or corporal punishment, is an effective way to respond to bad behaviour, others feel that it is a form of abuse. According to a 2023 survey conducted by Research Co. 61% of Canadians aged 18-34 would like to end the use of force to discipline children (Canseco, 2023). However, only 42% of Canadians aged 55 and over are reported to support ending the use of force in discipline (Canseco, 2023).

Studies have shown that spanking is not an effective form of punishment and may lead to aggression by the victim, particularly in those who are spanked at a young age (Berlin, 2009). A meta-analysis of research conducted over two decades published in the Canadian Medical Association Journal found that spanking was no better than other parenting methods at eliciting compliance in children and was in fact linked not only to increased levels of childhood aggression but also to long-term effects such as depression, emotional and behavioural problems, and drug and alcohol use in adulthood (Durrant and Ensom, 2012).

Child Abuse

Children are among the most helpless victims of abuse. In 2019, more than 69,000 children and youth under the age of 17 were victims of police-reported violence in Canada, and victims were more commonly girls (57%) (Conroy, 2021). Of the cases reported in 2019, approximately one third (32%) of children and youth were victimized by a family member (Conroy, 2021). Within the family, children and youth were most often victimized by a parent (60%), while a sibling (15%) was less common (Conroy, 2021). Amoung the children and youth victims of family violence, rates of physical assault generally increased with age, whereas rates of sexual offenses peaked amoung girls aged 12 to 14 and boys 6 to 11 (Conroy, 2021).

Child abuse may come in several forms, the most common being neglect, followed by physical abuse, sexual abuse, psychological maltreatment, and medical neglect (Child Help, 2011). Children and youth are most often victimized by casual acquaintances, family members, or strangers. The impacts of child abuse and violence are immediate and long term, affecting individuals and families. Violence in childhood can result in negative impacts on child development; poor mental health; poor physical health; increase in risky behaviours (ex. self-harm; risky sexual behaviour; problematic substance use); lower economic and social outcomes and the potential for severe injury or death (Public Health Agency of Canada, 2021).

Suspected cases of child abuse and neglect can also be reported to provincial and territorial child welfare authorities. Child welfare authorities intervene and conduct investigations regarding reports of child abuse and maltreatment. In 2019, it is estimated that there were over 299 000 child-maltreatment related investigations conducted in Canada (Fallon et al., 2021). Some parents do not purposely neglect their children; factors such as cultural values, standard of care in a community, and poverty can lead to hazardous levels of neglect. If information or assistance from public or private services are available and a parent fails to use those services, child welfare services may intervene (Public Health Agency of Canada, 2010).

Infants are also often victims of physical abuse, particularly in the form of violent shaking. This type of physical abuse is referred to as shaken-baby syndrome, which describes a group of medical symptoms such as brain swelling and retinal hemorrhage resulting from forcefully shaking or causing impact to an infant’s head. A baby’s cry is the number one trigger for shaking. Parents may find themselves unable to soothe a baby’s concerns and may take their frustration out on the child by shaking him or her violently. Other stress factors such as a poor economy, unemployment, and general dissatisfaction with parental life may contribute to this type of abuse. Shaken-baby syndrome was attributed as the cause of nearly one-third (31%) of family-related homicides of infants less than 1 year between 2000 and 2010 (Sinha, 2012).