3.5 Resources and References
Key Terms
beliefs: Tenets or convictions that people hold to be true.
breaching experiment: An experiment in which researchers purposely break a commonly accepted social norm or behave in a socially awkward manner to examine people’s reactions.
counterculture: A group that rejects and opposes society’s widely accepted cultural patterns
cultural imperialism: The deliberate imposition of one’s own cultural values on another culture.
cultural practice: A way of doing things that expresses the customs and know-how of a particular culture.
cultural relativism: The practice of assessing beliefs or practices within a culture by its own standards.
cultural universals: Patterns or traits that are globally common to all societies.
culture: Shared beliefs, values, and practices in a whole way of life.
culture shock: An experience of personal disorientation when confronted with an unfamiliar way of life.
ethnocentrism: The evaluation and judgment of another culture based on one’s own cultural norms.
ethnomethodology: The study of tacit knowledges, methods and practical procedures people use to make sense of and orient action in everyday life.
folkways: Norms without any particular moral underpinnings.
formal norms: Established, written rules
high culture: Forms of cultural experience characterized by formal complexity, eternal values, or creative authenticity.
ideal culture: The standards a society would like to embrace and live up to.
informal norms: Rules of behaviour that are generally and widely followed but not codified in law or institutional policy.
language: A symbolic system of communication.
mores: Norms based on social requirements which are based on the moral views and principles of a group.
norms: The visible and invisible rules of conduct through which societies are structured.
popular culture: Mainstream, widespread patterns among a society’s population
sanctions: A way to authorize or formally disapprove of certain behaviours.
social control: A way to encourage conformity to cultural norms
society: People who live in a definable community and who share a culture
subcultures: Groups that share a specific identification, apart from a society’s majority, even as the members exist within a larger society
symbols: Gestures or objects that have meanings associated with them that are recognized by people who share a culture
taboos: Strong prohibitions based on deeply held sacred or moral beliefs
values: A culture’s standard for discerning what is good and just in society
Quiz Questions
3.1 What is Culture?
Most cultures have been found to identify laughter as a sign of humor, joy, or pleasure. Laughter is an example of:
a) Relativism
b) Ethnocentrism
c) Xenocentrism
d) Universalism
3.2 Elements of Culture
The biggest difference between more and folkways is that
a) Mores are linked to morality, whereas folkways are tied to commonplace behaviors
b) Mores are absolute, whereas folkways are temporary
c) Mores refer to material culture, whereas folkways refer to nonmaterial culture
d) Mores refer to nonmaterial culture, whereas folkways refer to material culture
3.3 High, Low, Popular and Counter Culture
An example of high culture is _____________, whereas an example of popular culture would be ______________.
a) Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment; American Idol winners
b) Medical marijuana; Catholic liturgy
c) Folk music; hip hop music
d) Postmodernism; modernism
3.4 Theoretical Perspectives on Culture
A sociologist conducts research into the ways that Indigenous cultures were suppressed under colonial rule. What theoretical approach is the sociologist probably using?
a) Symbolic interactionism
b) Functionalism
c) Conflict sociology
d) Ethnomethodology
Future Research
3.1 What is Culture?
Ethnocentrism is a problem in many arenas. In the workplace, it can be hurtful and detrimental to an entire organization and especially to those who face mistreatment or feel unwelcome. People who exhibit ethnocentrism in the workplace are not only putting their careers at risk, but missing opportunities to flourish and advance with colleagues and customers of different backgrounds. In other words, curbing ethnocentrism is an important personal and societal goal, and it’s important for careers. This guide from an executive leadership academy discusses ways that multicultural teams can create more success if the people and company undertake the correct practices.
3.2 Elements of Culture
The science-fiction novel, Babel-17, by Samuel R. Delaney was based upon the principles of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Read an excerpt from Babel-17.
3.3 High, Low, Pop and Counter-Culture
The Beats were a counterculture that birthed an entire movement of art, music, and literature—much of which is still highly regarded and studied today. The author responsible for naming the generation was Jack Kerouac; however, the man responsible for introducing the world to that generation was John Clellon Holmes, a writer and friend of Kerouac’s. In 1952, he penned an article for the New York Times Magazine titled “This Is the Beat Generation”. Read that article and learn more about the Beat subculture.
Popular culture meets counterculture as Oprah Winfrey interacts with members of the Yearning for Zion cult.
References
3.1 What is Culture?
Amazon.com. 2020. Search for Humor Studies. “1-16 of over 40,000 results for Books : “humor studies””. Retrieved October 6, 2020. (Amazon.com)
Barger, Ken. 2008. “Ethnocentrism.” Indiana University, July 1. Retrieved May 2, 2011 (http://www.iupui.edu/~anthkb/ethnocen.htm).
Darwin, Charles R. 1871. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. London: John Murray.
Fritz, Thomas, S and Jentschke, N. Gosselin, et al. 2009. “Universal Recognition of Three Basic Emotions in Music.” Current Biology 19(7).
Jankowiak, William and Nelson, Alex. 2021. “Does Love Always Come Before Marriage.” Sapiens.org. February 11, 2021. (https://www.sapiens.org/culture/love-and-marriage)
Murdock, George P. 1949. Social Structure. New York: Macmillan.
National Statistical Office (NSO) [Papua New Guinea] and ICF. 2019. Papua New Guinea Demographic and Health Survey 2016-18. Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea, and Rockville, Maryland, USA: NSO and ICF. Retrieved https://dhsprogram.com/publications/publication-fr364-dhs-final-reports.cfm.
Oberg, Kalervo. 1960. “Cultural Shock: Adjustment to New Cultural Environments.” Practical Anthropology 7:177–182.
Old Dominion University. ‘Journal of International Students’. Accessed October 16, 2020. (https://www.ojed.org/index.php/jis/index)
Smithsonian Institution. Natural History Museum. What does it mean to be human? Retrieved October 6, 2020. (https://humanorigins.si.edu/human-characteristics/social-life)
Sumner, William G. 1906. Folkways: A Study of the Sociological Importance of Usages, Manners, Customs, Mores, and Morals. New York: Ginn and Co.
Swoyer, Chris. 2003. “The Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by E. N. Zalta, Winter. Retrieved May 5, 2011 (http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2003/entries/davidson/)
TEDx Talks. [TEDxTalks]. (2018, June 18). Intercultural guide to humor (at home and abroad) | Piotr Pluta | TEDxOslo. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w-abKKg0sw8
3.2 Elements of Culture
Cook, J., and King, J. (1784). A voyage to the Pacific Ocean. W. & A. Strahan. https://archive.org/details/voyagetopacifico03cook
Garfinkel, H. (1967). Studies in ethnomethodology. Prentice Hall Inc.
Heritage, J. (1984). Garfinkel and ethnomethodology. Polity Press.
Lipset, S. M. (1990). Continental divide: The values and institutions of the United States and Canada. Routledge, Chapman, and Hall.
Merton, R. (1938). Social structure and anomie. American Sociological Review, 3(5), 672–682. https://doi.org/10.2307/2084686
OED Online. 2011. Oxford University Press. Retrieved May 5, 2011 (http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/260911).
Sumner, W. G. (1906). Folkways: A study of the sociological importance of usages, manners, customs, mores, and morals. Ginn and Co.
Thome, H. (2015). Sociology of values. In Wright, J.D. (Editor-in-chief), International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences (Vol25, 2nd edition, pp.47–53). Elsevier.
Weber, B. (2011, May 3). Harold Garfinkel, a common-sense sociologist, dies at 93. The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/04/us/04garfinkel.html?_r=2
Westcott, Kathryn. 2008. “World’s Best-Known Protest Symbol Turns 50.” BBC News, March 20. Retrieved January 3, 2012 (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/7292252.stm).
3.3 High, Low, Pop and Counter Culture
Social Register Association. 2020. New York. https://www.socialregisteronline.com/
3.4 Theoretical Perspectives on Culture
Berger, T. (1967). The sacred canopy: Elements of a sociological theory of religion. Doubleday & Company, Inc.
Elections Canada. (2014). A history of the vote in Canada. http://www.elections.ca/content.aspx?section=res&dir=his&document=index&lang=e
Malinowski, B. (1954). Magic, science and religion. Doubleday. (Original work published 1925.)
Simmel, G. (1971). Fashion. In D. Levine (Ed.), On individuality and social forms (pp. 294–323). University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1904.)
