2.4 Resources and References
Key Terms
accuracy: using a tool makes the measuring more precise.
authoritative knowledge: Knowledge based on the accepted authority of the source.
case study: in-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual
casual observation: Knowledge based on observations without any systematic process for observing or assessing the accuracy of observations.
code of ethics: a set of guidelines that the American Sociological Association has established to foster ethical research and professionally responsible scholarship in sociology
content analysis: applying a systematic approach to record and value information gleaned from secondary data as it relates to the study at hand
control group: In an experiment, the subjects or comparison group who are not exposed to the independent variable.
correlation: when a change in one variable coincides with a change in another variable, but does not necessarily indicate causation
dependent variable: a variable changed by the impact of another variable.
empirical evidence: evidence that comes from direct observations, scientifically gathered data, or experimentation
ethnography: participating and observing thinking and behavior in a social setting
experiment: the testing of a hypothesis under controlled conditions
experimental group: In an experiment, the subjects who are exposed to the independent variable.
field research: gathering data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey
grounded theory: the generation of hypotheses and theories after the collecting and analysis of data.
Hawthorne effect: when study subjects behave in a certain manner due to their awareness of being observed by a researcher.
hypothesis: a testable educated guess about predicted outcomes between two or more variables
hypothetico-deductive methodologies: methodologies that test the validity of a hypothesis by whether it correctly predicts observations.
independent variables: variables that cause changes in dependent variables
inductive approach: methodologies that derive a general statement from a series of empirical observations.
interpretive sociology (approach): a sociological research approach that seeks in-depth understanding of a topic or subject through observation or interaction; this approach is not based on hypothesis testing.
intervening variable: an underlying variable that explains the correlation between two other variables.
interview: a one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject.
literature review: a scholarly research step that entails identifying and studying all existing studies on a topic to create a basis for new research
nonreactive research: using secondary data, does not include direct contact with research subjects and does not alter or influence people’s behaviors
operational definitions: specific explanations of abstract concepts that a researcher plans to study
overgeneralization: knowledge that draws general conclusions from limited observations.
participant observation: when a researcher immerses herself in a group or social setting in order to make observations from an “insider” perspective
population: a defined group serving as the subject of a study
positivist sociology (approach): research approach based on a hypothetico-deductive formulation of the research question, systematic empirical observation, and quantitative data.
primary data: data that are collected directly from firsthand experience
qualitative data: non-numerical, descriptive data that is often subjective and based on what is experienced in a natural setting
quantitative data: data collected in numerical form that can be counted and analyzed using statistics
random sample: a study’s participants being randomly selected to serve as a representation of a larger population
reliability: a measure of a study’s consistency that considers how likely results are to be replicated if a study is reproduced
research design: a detailed, systematic method for conducting research and obtaining data.
samples: small, manageable number of subjects that represent the population
scientific method: an established scholarly research that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing a data collection method, gathering data, and drawing conclusions
secondary data analysis: using data collected by others and applying new interpretations
selective observation: knowledge based on observations that only confirm what the observer expects or wants to see.
surveys: collect data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about thinking, behaviors, and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire
traditional knowledge: knowledge based on received beliefs or the way things have always been done.
validity: the degree to which a sociological measure accurately reflects the topic of study
value neutrality: a practice of remaining impartial, without bias or judgment during the course of a study and in publishing results
variable: a characteristic or measure of a social phenomenon that can take different values.
Quiz Questions
2.1 Approaches to Sociological Research
Sociological studies test relationships in which change in one causes change in another.
a. test subject
b. behaviour
c. variable
d. operational definition
In a study, a group of 10-year-old boys are fed doughnuts every morning for a week and then weighed to see how much weight they gained. Which factor is the dependent variable?
a. The doughnuts
b. The boys
c. The duration of a week
d. The weight gained
2.2 Research Methods
Why is choosing a random sample an effective way to select participants?
a. Participants do not know they are part of a study.
b. The researcher has no control over who is in the study.
c. It is larger than an ordinary sample.
d. Everyone has the same chance of being part of the study.
Which materials are considered secondary data?
a. Census information
b. Photos and letters
c. Information from previous sociological research
d. All of the above
2.3 Ethical Concerns
Which statement illustrates value neutrality?
a. Obesity in children is obviously a result of parental neglect; therefore, schools should take a greater role in preventing it.
b. In 2003, states like Arkansas adopted laws requiring elementary schools to remove soft drink vending machines from schools.
c. Merely restricting children’s access to junk food at school is not enough to prevent obesity.
d. Physical activity and healthy eating are proper parts of a child’s education.
Future Research
2.1 Approaches to Sociological Research
For a historical perspective on the scientific method in sociology, read “The Elements of Scientific Method in Sociology” by F. Stuart Chapin (1914) in the American Journal of Sociology.
2.2 Research Methods
Information on current real-world sociology experiments, Seven Examples of Field Experiments for Sociology by Karl Thompson (2016) from the Revise Sociology website.
2.3 Ethical Concerns
The Social Sciences and Humanities Council criteria for ethical conduct in research involving humans are outlined in Chapter 1 of the Tri-Council Policy Statement-Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans (TCPS-2) 2018 [PDF], which can be found on the Government of Canada website.
References:
2.0 Introduction to Sociological Research
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2.1 Approaches to Sociological Research
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2.2 Research Methods
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2.3 Ethical Concerns
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