Chapter 3: Breaking Cultural Barriers: Enhancing EDID through Anticipatory Socialization in Organizations

The first chapter discussed the different ways to understand EDID. The various definitions highlighted that there are two major tenets for EDID: policies and culture. The second chapter focused on the two major policies that shape multiculturalism in Canada. Despite the fact that such legal frameworks and policies have significantly contributed to achieving some justice for members of various disenfranchised groups, there are still major challenges in realizing ideal EDID. Cultural challenges and the lack of an intersectional approach are among the two major challenges. Thus, this chapter will focus on cultural barriers to achieving ideal EDID by exploring the concept of anticipatory socialization.

Defining Culture

It is important to define culture before discussing the concept of anticipatory socialization. Defining culture is a very challenging task (Lenard, 2020). Culture can be described as a “notoriously overbroad concept” (Song 2009: 177) and a “notoriously ambiguous concept” (Eisenberg 2009, p. 07). Patti Lenard (2020) asserts that “culture” can refer to “the set of norms, practices, and values that characterize minority and majority groups.” However, defining culture is complex to the extent that there is no consensus around a single understanding of culture in political and legal spheres (Lenard, 2020). Lenard (2020) developed four categories reflecting different views on culture: culture as encompassing groups, culture as social formation, culture as dialogue, and culture as identity.

Lenard utilized the work of Will Kymlicka on “societal culture.” Kymlicka asserts that societal culture “provides its members with meaningful ways of life across the full range of human activities, including social, educational, religious, recreational, and economic life, encompassing both public and private spheres” (Kymlicka, 1996,  p. 76).

Different philosophers, like Avishai Margalit, Moshe Halbertal, and Michael Walzer, also offer an encompassing account of culture (Lenard, 2020). However, this approach has faced much criticism. Critics posit that this is an “essentialist” perspective that is not realistic.

The essentialist objection targets the assumption that members of a culture will hold the same set of practices, norms, and values to be important and to the same extent. Critics argue that this assumption does not hold; in any actual culture, members will have different commitments to its defining practices and norms, and there will be disagreements around which practices and norms are defined in the first place (Lenard, 2020).

Therefore, the other views on understanding culture primarily respond to this critique. One way to overcome essentialism is to understand culture as social formation. This approach highlights the fact that a culture’s historical trajectory does not require that its defining norms, values, and practices remain unchanging over time (Lenard, 2020). Thus, members of similar cultural groups are not homogeneous, and the process of defining culture is ongoing, with meanings always being deliberated. This leads to the understanding of culture as dialogue.

Lenard asserts that the major purpose of culture as dialogue is to emphasize that a culture’s members are the source of its main practices, values, and norms. This perspective highlights that a culture is not “given” to its members from above as a fixed and unalterable entity. Rather, members of a culture are, in a fundamental way, its authors (Lenard, 2020). Therefore, the meaning of culture is contested and continuously reimagined and transformed by its members and through their interactions (Tully, 1995).

The last way to view culture is as identity. “To answer the challenge of how to identify a culture and its members, one proposal focuses on the subjective component associated with belonging to a cultural group” (Lenard, 2020). It is important to mention that the identity-focused view is not necessarily culturally based, as seen in the case of LGBTQ+ communities.

To sum up, the formation and evolution of culture is not a natural process but a result of a socially constructed process that reflects various conflicting power dynamics. Understanding the different views of culture is important for comprehending the complexity of anticipatory socialization.

Anticipatory Socialization

“Anticipatory socialization describes the period of time before an individual joins an organization” (Kramer & Bisel, 2017, p. 31). Anticipatory socialization involves communication processes that lead to two important decisions: role and organization. Anticipatory role socialization explains how our communication experiences shape our decisions about the roles or careers we will assume in organizations, including paid and non-paid work. Individuals also develop and shape their general attitudes toward work during this period. Anticipatory organizational socialization examines individuals’ communication experiences in shaping their decisions about which organizations they want to join (Kramer & Bisel, 2017). Michael W. Kramer and Ryan Bisel (2017) assert that the recruitment and reconnaissance process and the selection process are the most important elements in anticipatory organizational socialization.

Anticipatory Role Socialization

Scholarly research agrees that family, education, peers, previous experience, and media are five important sources that influence individuals’ occupational choices (Kramer & Bisel, 2017). However, it must be argued that these elements are not neutral and do not provide equal conditions for everyone.

The Canadian education system has been criticized for perpetuating class differences and reinforcing stereotypes. Schools in affluent neighborhoods often have more resources, better facilities, and more experienced teachers, while schools in lower-income areas may struggle with underfunding and limited resources. This disparity affects the quality of education that students receive, thereby influencing their anticipatory socialization experiences (Davies & Aurini, 2011; James & Turner, 2017). A study conducted by HB Ferguson et al. (2010) finds that students from low-income families are less likely to complete high school or pursue any kind of post-secondary education. Consequently, individuals from low-income families are unable to find well-paid jobs, perpetuating a cycle of poverty and limited social mobility. Educational inequities are perpetuated both from outside the educational system and from within (James & Turner, 2017).

James and Turner (2017) argue that tracking systems, standardized testing, and differential access to gifted programs disproportionately benefit students from higher socio-economic backgrounds, reinforcing existing inequalities. Thus, education as an important tenet is very complex and socially constructed in a way that enables some people and disenfranchises others. Consequently, education does not qualify everyone the same way.

Critical media scholars assert that media often perpetuates traditional gender roles, portraying men in leadership and decision-making positions while women are frequently depicted in domestic or subordinate roles (Aujla-Sidhu, 2022). Researchers that studied depictions beyond gender, including the intersection of gender, ethnicity, and Indigeneity, shows that these depictions reinforce harmful stereotypes, limiting these groups’ perceived potential and societal contributions. Canadian media often depict Indigenous people as victims and disregard their important role as effective contributors to our contemporary society. These negative depictions of women, LGBTQ individuals, Indigenous people, and members of ethnic groups effectively contribute to the development of a culture that hinders the anticipatory socialization of women, especially Black and women of color, and members of various disenfranchised groups.

Anticipatory Organizational Socialization

Kramer and Bisel (2017) assert that the ultimate goal of any organization is to hire the right employee who can perfectly fill the job requirements. This concept is called “person-job fit” (2017, p. 45). “From a management perspective, having the right person in the right position improves the efficiency and productivity of a unit, whereas having the wrong person leads to problems” (Kramer & Bisel, 2017, p. 45). Recent research in organizational communication has started to shift from distinguishing organizations hiring based on person-job fit to person-organization fit (P-O). Lauver and Kristof-Brown (2001) posit that hiring P-O involves matching the employee with the organization’s values and beliefs, in other words, organizational culture (Kramer & Bisel, 2017). Some research argues that P-O hiring contributes more to employee retention as well as to various positive behaviors such as helping and cooperating with others and volunteering for extra duties (Kramer & Bisel, 2017, p. 45). EDID researchers and activists criticize P-O hiring, claiming it is a discriminatory way of hiring.

“Hiring culture fit is among the most widespread and exclusionary hiring practices today. When you’re hiring for fit—given that most companies in Western countries are led by white men—by default, you’re hiring for sameness. ‘Culture fit’ is an unspoken code that people have around what’s acceptable and what’s not within an organization, or even in a society” (Tulshyan, 2022, p. 101). Therefore, hiring employees who the organization believes culturally fit the organization means empowering those who are already empowered and contributing to the vulnerability of already disenfranchised groups. Tulshyan argues that it is much better and more profitable to adopt a hiring strategy focused on “culture add” rather than “culture fit” (2022, p. 102). A culture-add hiring strategy will achieve a more inclusive workplace. Research shows that working teams formed of culturally diverse employees lead to important contributions to the organization, such as developing more innovative solutions, leading to better organizational profits and bigger market shares (Phillips, 2014). Culture-add hiring leads to more justice and fairness within the organization (Tulshyan, 2022).

Practical Recommendations for Organizations

Dupuis (2017) suggested important recommendations for more effective anticipatory organizational socialization, focusing on three main points:

Diversity Training and Awareness: To ensure that minorities, including women and ethnocultural minorities, succeed in the workplace, organizations should implement mandatory diversity training programs. These programs should educate employees and management on unconscious bias, microaggressions, and the importance of an inclusive workplace. Training should be continuous, with regular updates and refreshers. Moreover, organizations should celebrate diversity events and encourage open dialogues about diversity and inclusion.

Mentorship and Sponsorship Programs: To support the career advancement of minority employees, organizations should establish formal mentorship and sponsorship programs. Mentors can provide guidance, share insights, and help mentees navigate organizational culture. Sponsors, who are often senior leaders, can advocate for their protégés, opening doors to new opportunities and promotions. Organizations should track the progress and outcomes of these programs to ensure they are effective and beneficial.

Inclusive Hiring and Promotion Practices: To address systemic barriers and biases in hiring and promotion, organizations should adopt inclusive practices. This includes using diverse hiring panels, ensuring job descriptions are free from biased language, and implementing blind recruitment techniques. Regular audits of hiring and promotion data should be conducted to identify and address disparities. Organizations should set measurable diversity goals and hold leadership accountable for achieving them.

Practical Steps for Inclusion

1. Candidate Search

Tulshyan (2022) recommends that organizations must focus on highlighting the required skills instead of specifying a certain university degree. This way of drafting the post would encourage a lot of people to apply as they might have the required skills for the job but not necessarily the required university/ college degree. Tulshyan (2022) asserts that it is important to explain the hiring process in the job posting as not all applicants have the same knowledge and experience of applying to jobs. Making sure that the post is posted in different networks is key for diversity and inclusion.

2. The Interview

Tulshyan (2022) recommends practical steps that will make sure that the interview process is more culturally sensitive and diverse. A homogeneous interview panel and group of people making a hiring decision are less likely to pick someone different. Next, Tulshyan recommends that each interview debrief should begin with the question, “Where could bias be showing up in this decision?” It sounds uncomfortable, and it can be, but naming biases is necessary to practice inclusion on purpose during hiring. Refrain from asking questions or having conversations about culture fit or criteria (both official and informal discussions) around culture fit. Seek to bring “culture add”—people who are different and will add diversity to your team. Create more structured interview processes to reduce the subjectivity that often informs hiring decisions. After the interviews are completed, reconvene as an interview group as soon as possible. We have an overreliance on first impressions rather than facts to make decisions. If you wait a long time to discuss candidates, it’s more likely that you will default to these first impressions versus their qualifications. Next, articulate decisions aloud. When we are required to explain our reasoning, or listen to others’ thoughts, we can typically catch our own bias in action or even ask for more information if we hear our colleagues making biased judgments.

3. The Job Offer and Follow-up After Hiring

Information about the salary range stated up front can reduce the unintentional creation of a pay gap. Depending on how your organization handles salary conversations, a recruiter will either discuss this with a candidate before the interview or pay will be discussed once a hiring decision is made. The earlier this conversation is had, the better. By incorporating these recommendations, organizations can foster a more inclusive environment that supports the success and advancement of minority employees, ultimately contributing to a more equitable and diverse workplace.

Conclusion

This chapter explored cultural barriers to achieving ideal EDID in organizations by discussing the concept of anticipatory socialization. The chapter began by defining culture and exploring various perspectives on understanding culture, emphasizing that it is a socially constructed process influenced by power dynamics. The concept of anticipatory socialization was then introduced, focusing on anticipatory role socialization and anticipatory organizational socialization. The chapter highlighted how education and media play significant roles in shaping individuals’ occupational choices and attitudes toward work, often perpetuating inequalities and stereotypes. Additionally, it discussed the shift from person-job fit to person-organization fit in hiring practices, criticizing the discriminatory nature of hiring based on cultural fit. The chapter concluded with practical recommendations for organizations to foster a more inclusive environment, including diversity training, mentorship programs, and inclusive hiring practices. By addressing these cultural barriers, organizations can work towards achieving more equitable, diverse, and inclusive workplaces.