Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

• Define and explain the function of each macronutrient and type of micronutrient.
• Examine factors that affect the quality of food.
• Discuss influences on food choice.
• Outline how to achieve a healthy diet.
• Identify ways to assess the quality of meals and snacks in early learning and childcare programs. 

Introduction

To plan, prepare, and serve nutritious foods to children in early learning and childcare programs it’s important to have a basic understanding of nutrition as well as the factors that influence our food choices.

In Ontario, the College of Early Childhood Educators Code of Ethics requires that educators “recognize and respect the uniqueness and diversity of families” by providing “meaningful opportunities for families to engage in and contribute to the learning environment and their child’s experiences.” (College of Early Childhood Educators, 2023). In most cultures, food plays a central role in defining and celebrating cultural traditions.

Culture and food traditions can influence:

• How you eat
• What you eat
• When you eat
• Where you get food
• How you prepare food” (Canada’s Food Guide, 2020)

What are Nutrients?

The foods we eat contain nutrients. Nutrients are substances required by the body to perform its basic functions. Nutrients must be obtained from our diet since the human body does not synthesize or produce them. Nutrients have one or more of three basic functions: they provide energy, contribute to body structure, and/or regulate chemical processes in the body. These basic functions allow us to detect and respond to environmental surroundings, move, excrete wastes, respire (breathe), grow, and reproduce.

There are six classes of nutrients required for the body to function and maintain overall health. These are carbohydrates, fats, proteins, water, vitamins, and minerals. Foods also contain non-nutrients that may be harmful (such as natural toxins common in plant foods and additives like some dyes and preservatives) or beneficial (such as antioxidants).

Macronutrients

Nutrients that are needed in large amounts are called macronutrients. There are three classes of macronutrients: carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. These can be metabolically processed into cellular energy, allowing our bodies to conduct their basic functions. A unit of measurement of food energy is the calorie. Water is also a macronutrient in the sense that you require a large amount of it, but unlike the other macronutrients, it does not yield calories. 

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The major food sources of carbohydrates are grains, milk, fruits, and starchy vegetables, like potatoes. Non-starchy vegetables also contain carbohydrates, but in lesser quantities. Carbohydrates are broadly classified into two forms based on their chemical structure: simple carbohydrates, often called simple sugars; and complex carbohydrates.

Simple carbohydrates consist of one or two basic units. Examples of simple sugars include sucrose, the type of sugar you would have in a bowl on the breakfast table, and glucose, the type of sugar that circulates in your blood.

Complex carbohydrates are long chains of simple. During digestion, the body breaks down digestible complex carbohydrates to simple sugars, mostly glucose. Glucose is then transported to all our cells where it is stored, used to make energy, or used to build macromolecules. Fiber is also a complex carbohydrate, but it cannot be broken down by digestive enzymes in the human intestine. As a result, it passes through the digestive tract undigested unless the bacteria that inhabit the colon or large intestine break it down.

One gram of digestible carbohydrates yields four kilocalories of energy for the cells in the body to perform work. In addition to providing energy and serving as building blocks for bigger macromolecules, carbohydrates are essential for proper functioning of the nervous system, heart, and kidneys. As mentioned, glucose can be stored in the body for future use. 

Fats

Fat (officially called lipids) are also a family of molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but unlike carbohydrates, they are insoluble in water. Fats are found predominantly in butter, oils, meats, dairy products, nuts, and seeds, and in many processed foods. The main job of fats is to provide or store energy. Fats provide more energy per gram than carbohydrates (nine kilocalories per gram of fats versus four kilocalories per gram of carbohydrates). In addition to energy storage, fats serve as a major component of cell membranes, surround and protect organs (in fat-storing tissues), provide insulation to aid in temperature regulation, and regulate many other functions in the body.

Proteins

Proteins are macromolecules composed of chains of subunits called amino acids. Amino acids are simple subunits composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Food sources of proteins include meats, dairy products, seafood, and a variety of different plant-based foods, most notably soy. The word protein comes from a Greek word meaning “of primary importance,” which is an apt description of these macronutrients; they are also known colloquially as the “workhorses” of life. Proteins provide four kilocalories of energy per gram; however, providing energy is not protein’s most important function. Proteins provide structure to bones, muscles, and skin, and play a role in conducting most of the chemical reactions that take place in the body. Scientists estimate that more than one-hundred thousand different proteins exist within the human body. The genetic codes in DNA are basically protein recipes that determine the order in which 20 different amino acids are bound together to make thousands of specific proteins. 

Water

There is one other nutrient that we must have in large quantities: water. Water does not contain carbon but is composed of two hydrogens and one oxygen per molecule of water. More than 60 percent of your total body weight is water. Without it, nothing could be transported in or out of the body, chemical reactions would not occur, organs would not be cushioned, and body temperature would fluctuate widely.

Micronutrients

Micronutrients are nutrients required by the body in lesser amounts but are still essential for carrying out bodily functions. Micronutrients include all the essential minerals and vitamins. There are sixteen essential minerals and thirteen vitamins (See Table 5.1 “Minerals and Their Major Functions” and Table 5.2 “Vitamins and Their Major Functions” for a complete list and their major functions). In contrast to carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, micronutrients are not sources of energy (calories), but they assist in the process as components of enzymes. Enzymes are proteins that cause chemical reactions in the body and are involved in all aspects of body functions from producing energy, to digesting nutrients, to building macromolecules. Micronutrients play many essential roles in the body.

Minerals

Minerals are solid inorganic substances that form crystals and are classified depending on how much of them we need. Trace minerals, such as molybdenum, selenium, zinc, iron, and iodine, are only required in a few milligrams or less. Macrominerals, such as calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and phosphorus, are required in hundreds of milligrams. Many minerals are critical for enzyme function, others are used to maintain fluid balance, build bone tissue, synthesize hormones, transmit nerve impulses, contract, and relax muscles, and protect against harmful free radicals in the body that can cause health problems such as cancer.

Table 1 – Minerals and Their Major Functions

Macrominerals

Trace Minerals

Vitamins

The thirteen vitamins are categorized as either water-soluble or fat-soluble. The water-soluble vitamins are vitamin C and all the B vitamins, which include thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, biotin, folate, and cobalamin. Unneeded water-soluble vitamins are excreted from the body. The fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, E, and K. Vitamins are required to perform many functions in the body such as making red blood cells, synthesizing bone tissue, and playing a role in normal vision, nervous system function, and immune system function. Fat soluble vitamins are stored in the body in fat (and can become toxic when too much is consumed, almost always from supplements).

Table 2 – Vitamins and Their Major Functions

Water Soluble

Fat Soluble

Vitamin deficiencies can cause severe health problems and even death. Some vitamins have been found to prevent certain disorders and diseases such as scurvy (vitamin C), night blindness (vitamin A), and rickets (vitamin D).

Table 3 – Summary of the Functions of Nutrients

Quality of Food

One measurement of food quality is the amount of nutrients it contains relative to the amount of energy it provides. High-quality foods are nutrient dense, meaning they contain significant amounts of one or more essential nutrients relative to the number of calories they provide. Nutrient-dense foods are the opposite of “empty-calorie” foods such as carbonated sugary soft drinks, which provide many calories and very little, if any, other nutrients. Food quality is additionally associated with its taste, texture, appearance, microbial content, and how much consumers like it.

Food: A Better Source of Nutrients

It is better to get all your micronutrients from the foods you eat as opposed to from supplements. Supplements contain only what is listed on the label, but foods contain many more macronutrients, micronutrients, and other chemicals, like antioxidants, that benefit health.

According to Statistics Canada, in 2015, 45.6% of Canadians aged one year and older (approximately 15.7 million people) used at least one nutritional supplement. About 45% of children aged 1 to 3 years and 4 to 8 years old took nutritional supplements (Statistics Canada, n.d.). Sales of vitamins, minerals and other health supplements amounted to approximately 1.17 billion Canadian dollars in the fourth quarter of 2021 (Statista, n.d.)

While vitamins, multivitamins, and supplements are a billion industry in Canada, there is no consistent evidence that they are better than food in promoting health and preventing disease.

Food Additives

According to the Government of Canada, “A food additive is any chemical substance that is added to food during preparation or storage and either becomes a part of the food or affects its characteristics for the purpose of achieving a particular technical effect. Substances that are used in food to maintain its nutritive quality, enhance its keeping quality, make it attractive or to aid in its processing, packaging or storage are all considered to be food additives.” (Government of Canada, 2016)

In Canada, food additives are regulated under the Food and Drug Act and Regulations. Under the Food and Drug Act and Regulations, food additives do not include:

• Food ingredients such as salt, sugar, starch.
• Vitamins, minerals, amino acids;
• Spices, seasonings, flavouring preparations.
• Agricultural chemicals.
• Veterinary drugs; or
• Food packaging materials. (Government of Canada, 2016)

People have been using food additives for thousands of years. Additives are used to maintain or improve safety, freshness, nutritional value, taste, texture, and appearance. The use of food additives has become more prominent in recent years due to the increased production of prepared, processed, and convenience foods. Today more than 3000 substances are used as food additives.

Salt, sugar, and corn syrup are by far the most widely used additives in food in Western cultures. How this might affect the quality (including nutritional value) of food will depend on the additive. 

Food Colour

In Canada, food colour is regulated as a food additive. Ten synthetic colours have been approved for use in food and are listed in the Food and Drug Regulations (FDR). Health Canada recently amended the food colour labelling requirements that require colouring agents to be identified on labels by their common name to make more information available to consumers when making food selections (Government Canada, 2021).

Artificial Sweeteners

Artificial sweeteners, also called sugar substitutes, are substances that are used instead of sucrose (table sugar) to sweeten foods and beverages. Because artificial sweeteners are many times sweeter than table sugar, much smaller amounts (200 to 20,000 times less) are needed to create the same level of sweetness.

Sugar substitutes (including artificial sweeteners and intense sweeteners obtained from natural sources) are regulated in Canada under the Food and Drugs Act and Regulations.

Questions about artificial sweeteners and cancer arose when early studies showed that cyclamate in combination with saccharin caused bladder cancer in laboratory animals. However, results from subsequent carcinogenicity studies (studies that examine whether a substance can cause cancer) of these sweeteners have not provided clear evidence of an association with cancer in humans. Similarly, studies of other Federal Drug Administration (American) approved sweeteners have not demonstrated clear evidence of an association with cancer in humans.

Choosing Foods

There are other factors besides environment and lifestyle that influence the foods you choose to eat. Different foods affect energy level, mood, how much is eaten, how long before you eat again, and if cravings are satisfied. We have talked about some of the physical effects of food on your body, but there are other effects too.

Food regulates your appetite and how you feel. Multiple studies have demonstrated that some high fiber foods and high-protein foods decrease appetite by slowing the digestive process and prolonging the feeling of being full or satiety. The effects of individual foods and nutrients on mood are not backed by consistent scientific evidence, but in general, most studies support that healthier diets are associated with a decrease in depression and improved well-being. To date, science has not been able to track the exact path in the brain that occurs in response to eating a particular food, but it is quite clear that foods, in general, stimulate emotional responses in people.

Food also has psychological, cultural, and religious significance, so your personal choices of food affect your mind, as well as your body. The social implications of food have a great deal to do with what people eat, as well as how and when. Special events in individual lives—from birthdays to funerals—are commemorated with equally special foods. Being aware of these forces can help people make healthier food choices—and still honor the traditions and ties they hold dear.

Indigenous Perspective

“Our food is our medicine, our food is healing, our food brings everybody together, our food creates family bonds when you eat it together, it triggers memories of long ago. There are so many aspects of our Traditional foods that are so important.”  – Jenny Cross, Haida Elder (BC Government).

Factors that Drive Food Choices

Along with these influences, several other factors affect the dietary choices individuals make, including:

• Taste, texture, and appearance: Individuals have a wide range of tastes which influence their food choices, leading some to dislike milk and others to hate raw vegetables. Some foods that are very healthy, such as tofu, may be unappealing at first to many people. However, creative cooks can adapt healthy foods to meet most people’s taste.
• Economics: Access to fresh fruits and vegetables may be scant, particularly for those who live in economically disadvantaged or remote areas, where cheaper food options are limited to convenience stores and fast food.
• Early food experiences: People who were not exposed to different foods as children, or who were forced to swallow every last bite of overcooked vegetables, may make limited food choices as adults.
• Habits: It’s common to establish eating routines, which can work both for and against optimal health. Habitually grabbing a fast-food sandwich for breakfast can seem convenient but might not offer substantial nutrition. Yet getting in the habit of drinking an ample amount of water each day can yield multiple benefits.
• Culture: The culture in which one grows up affects how one sees food in daily life and on special occasions.
• Geography: Where a person lives influences food choices. For instance, people who live in land locked provinces in Canada may have less access to affordable fin fish and shellfish than those living along the coasts.
• Advertising: The media greatly influences food choice by persuading consumers to eat certain foods.
• Social factors: Any school lunchroom observer can testify to the impact of peer pressure on eating habits, and this influence lasts through adulthood. People make food choices based on how they see others and want others to see them. For example, individuals who are surrounded by others who consume fast food are more likely to do the same.
• Health concerns: Some people have significant food allergies, to peanuts for example, and need to avoid those foods. Others may have developed health issues which require them to follow a low salt diet. In addition, people who have never worried about their weight have a quite different approach to eating than those who have long struggled with excess weight.
• Emotions: There is a wide range in how emotional issues affect eating habits. When faced with a great deal of stress, some people tend to overeat, while others find it hard to eat at all.
• Green food/Sustainability choices: Based on a growing understanding of diet as a public and personal issue, more and more people are starting to make food choices based on their environmental impact. Realizing that their food choices help shape the world, many individuals are opting for a vegetarian diet, or, if they do eat animal products, striving to find the most “cruelty-free” options possible. Purchasing local and organic food products and items grown through sustainable products also help shrink the size of one’s dietary footprint.⁵⁵⁸

Vegetarian Diet

People choose a vegetarian diet for several reasons, including religious doctrines, health concerns, ecological and animal welfare concerns, or simply because they dislike the taste of meat. There are several types of vegetarians, but a common theme is that vegetarians do not eat meat. Four common forms of vegetarianism are:

1. Lacto-ovo vegetarian: This is the most common form. This type of vegetarian diet includes the animal foods eggs and dairy products.
2. Lacto-vegetarian: This type of vegetarian diet includes dairy products but not eggs.
3. Ovo-vegetarian: This type of vegetarian diet includes eggs but not dairy products.
4. Vegan: This type of vegetarian diet does not include dairy, eggs, or any type of animal product or animal by-product.

Preparing vegetarian meals will be addressed further in Module 5.4.

Achieving a Healthy Diet

Achieving a healthy diet is a matter of balancing the quality and quantity of food that is eaten. There are five key factors that make up a healthful diet:

1. A diet must be adequate, by providing sufficient amounts of each essential nutrient, as well as fibre and adequate calories.
2. A balanced diet results when you do not consume one nutrient at the expense of another, but rather get appropriate amounts of all nutrients.
3. Calorie control is necessary so that the amount of energy you get from the nutrients you consume equals the amount of energy you expend during your day’s activities.
4. Moderation means not eating to the extremes, neither too much nor too little.
5. Variety refers to consuming different foods from within each of the food groups on a regular basis.

A healthy diet is one that favours whole foods. As an alternative to modern processed foods, a healthy diet focuses on fresh whole foods that have been sustaining people for generations. Whole foods supply the needed vitamins, minerals, protein, carbohydrates, fats, and fibre that are essential to good health. Commercially prepared and fast foods are often lacking nutrients and often contain inordinate amounts of sugar, salt, saturated and trans fats, all of which are associated with the development of diseases such as atherosclerosis, heart disease, stroke, cancer, obesity, diabetes, and other illnesses. A balanced diet is a mix of food from the different food groups (vegetables, legumes, fruits, grains, protein foods, and dairy).

Adequacy

An adequate diet is one that favors nutrient-dense foods. Nutrient-dense foods are defined as foods that contain many essential nutrients per calorie. Nutrient-dense foods are the opposite of “empty-calorie” foods, such as sugary carbonated beverages, which are also called “nutrient-poor.” Nutrient-dense foods include fruits and vegetables, lean meats, poultry, fish, low-fat dairy products, and whole grains. Choosing more nutrient-dense foods will facilitate weight loss, while simultaneously providing all necessary nutrients.

Balance

Balance the foods in your diet. Achieving balance in your diet entails not consuming one nutrient at the expense of another. For example, calcium is essential for healthy teeth and bones, but too much calcium will interfere with iron absorption. Most foods that are good sources of iron are poor sources of calcium, so to get the necessary amounts of calcium and iron from your diet, a proper balance between food choices is critical. Another example is that while sodium is an essential nutrient, excessive intake may contribute to congestive heart failure and chronic kidney disease in some people. Remember, everything must be consumed in the proper amounts.

Moderation

Eat in moderation. Moderation is crucial for optimal health and survival. Eating nutrient-poor foods each night for dinner will lead to health complications. But as part of an otherwise healthful diet and consumed only on a weekly basis, this should not significantly impact overall health. It’s important to remember that eating is, in part, about enjoyment and indulging with a spirit of moderation. This fits within a healthy diet.

Monitor food portions. For optimum weight maintenance, it is important to ensure that energy consumed from foods meets the energy expenditures required for body functions and activity. If not, the excess energy contributes to gradual, steady accumulation of stored body fat and weight gain. To lose body fat, you need to ensure that more calories are burned than consumed. Likewise, to gain weight, calories must be eaten in excess of what is expended daily.

Variety

Variety involves eating different foods from all the food groups. Eating a varied diet helps to ensure that you consume and absorb adequate amounts of all essential nutrients required for health. One of the major drawbacks of a monotonous diet is the risk of consuming too much of some nutrients and not enough of others. Trying new foods can also be a source of pleasure—you never know what foods you might like until you try them.

Developing a healthful diet can be rewarding but be mindful that all the principles presented must be followed to derive maximal health benefits. For instance, introducing variety in your diet can still result in the consumption of too many high-calorie, nutrient poor foods, and inadequate nutrient intake if you do not also employ moderation and calorie control. Using all these principles together will promote lasting health benefits.

National School Food Programs in Canada

“Among G7 countries, Canada is the only one without a national school food program. Prime Minister Justin Trudeau made an election commitment in 2021 of investing $1 billion over five years, and tasked his agriculture minister and minister of families, children and social development to build a school food policy. Advocates are hopeful that a federal government plan could lead to a universal school food program…In the meantime, what exists is a patchwork of programs that serves a snack, breakfast, or lunch to roughly one million school-age children, 21 per cent of the country’s student population – thanks to non-profit agencies and an army of volunteers.” (The Globe and Mail, 2023)

Dietary Guidelines for Canadians

Canada’s Food Guide was first introduced in 1942. It has evolved over time to reflect our growing understanding of nutrition. The most recent version of the Food Guide was published in February 2019.

Canada’s Food Guide emphasizes a healthy eating pattern. The 2019 version does not include serving sizes. It also removed specific requirements for dairy, meat, and bread. Dairy products are now included with other sources of protein and bread has been completely removed as a food category.

This current version of Canada’s Food Guide is organized around 11 recommendations in relationship to two main principles: (1) it is important to eat a variety of healthy foods every day and (2) healthy eating is more than the food you eat.

Principle 1: It is important to eat a variety of healthy foods every day.

1. Eat plenty of vegetables and fruit: The Food Guide recommends that about half (50%) of the foods you consume each day come in the form of vegetables and fruit. Some ideas to get more vegetables and fruit in your diet are presented in 16 ways to get more plant foods into your diet. To discover how to cook vegetables consult basic kitchen and cooking skills, which includes video instructions on how to grill, roast, steam and stir fry vegetables.
2. Choose whole grain foods: The Food Guide recommends that about a quarter (25%) of the foods you consume each day are grain foods, with an emphasis on whole grainfoods, which are a healthier choice than refined (i.e., processed) grains. Grains include wheat, rice, quinoa, oats, and rye. Consult cooking with whole grains to learn how to cook whole grains. Products made from grains include breads, cereals, noodles, and crackers.
3. Eat protein foods: The Food Guide recommends that about a quarter (25%) of the foods you consume each day come from protein foods. Choose protein foods that come from plants more often. These include beans, peas, lentils, soy products (e.g., tofu), nuts and seeds. Protein foods that come from animals include meats (e.g., chicken, turkey, pork, and beef), eggs, fish, shellfish, and dairy products (e.g., yogurt and cheese). Choose lower-fat versions of animal products (e.g., low-fat yogurt, lean meats).
4. Make water your drink of choice: There are plenty of beverage options out there. Unfortunately, many have a lot of sugar and calories. Some beverages are high in salt or fat. Make water your drink of choice. It is a great way to quench your thirst and to stay hydrated without calories.
5. Use food labels: Food labels provide information that can help identify healthy foods. Information on labels include the “Nutrition Facts” panel, the ingredient list and nutrition claims. See how to read a food labelfor more information.
6. Limit foods high in sodium, sugars, or saturated fat: High levels of added sugars, sodium(e.g., salt) and saturated (“bad”) fat in the diet are associated with a range of health problems. Choose foods that are low in added sugars and low in sodium. Choose foods with healthy fats, which are predominantly plant foods such as nuts, seeds, avocadoes, and plant oils such as canola, olive, or corn oil. Fatty fish (e.g., salmon, trout, mackerel, and sardines) contain healthy fats.
7. Be aware of food marketing: Food producers spend millions of dollars each year marketing their products to the public. They study us and know how to make their products appealing so that we will buy them. Unfortunately, the most highly marketed food and drink products are also some of the least nutritious (e.g., sodas, fast foods). Marketing affects your food choices, so it is important to be aware of the strategies marketers use to promote their products.

Principle 2:  Healthy eating is more than the foods you eat.

1. Be mindful of your eating habits: Being mindful means being aware of how, what, why, when and where you eat. It can help you make healthier choices more often and make positive changes in your eating habits.
2. Cook more often: Many meals prepared outside of the home are high in sugar, sodium (e.g., salt) or fat. By cooking for yourself you can select whole ingredients and keep unhealthy nutrients (e.g., saturated fat) low. Basic kitchen and cooking skills has plenty of short cooking videos to help you become more confident in the kitchen.
3. Enjoy your food: Enjoying your food is part of healthy eating. Enjoy the taste of your food and the many food-related activities that go along with eating.
4. Eat meals with others: Enjoying healthy foods with family, friends, neighbours, or co-workers is a great way to connect and add enjoyment to your life. It can provide many benefits and contribute to a healthy lifestyle (Concordia University, n.d.). Concordia University

Nutrition Facts Labels

The information in the main or top section (see #1-4) of the sample nutrition label (below) can vary with each food and beverage product; it contains product-specific information (serving size, calories, and nutrient information). The bottom section contains a footnote that explains the % Daily Value and gives the number of calories used for general nutrition advice.

In the following Nutrition Facts label certain sections have been colored to help focus on those areas that will be explained in detail. Note that these colored sections are not on the actual food labels of products you purchase.

1. Serving Information

When looking at the Nutrition Facts label, first look at the number of servings in the package (servings per container) and the serving size. Serving sizes are standardized to make it easier to compare similar foods; they are provided in familiar units, such as cups or pieces, followed by the metric amount, e.g., the number of grams (g). The serving size reflects the amount that people typically eat or drink. It is not a recommendation of how much you should eat or drink.

It’s important to realize that all the nutrient amounts shown on the label, including the number of calories, refer to the size of the serving. Pay attention to the serving size, especially how many servings there are in the food package. For example, you might ask yourself if you are consuming ½ serving, 1 serving, or more.

2. Calories

Calories provide a measure of how much energy you get from a serving of this food.

In the example, there are 280 calories in one serving of lasagna. What if you ate the entire package? Then, you would consume 4 servings, or 1,120 calories.

3. Nutrients

Look at section 3 in the sample label. It shows you some key nutrients that impact your health. Two key facts about the nutrients:

• Nutrients to get less of: Saturated Fat, Sodium, and Added Sugars.
• Nutrients to get more of: Dietary Fiber, Vitamin D, Calcium, Iron, and Potassium.

4. The Percent Daily Value (%DV)

The % Daily Value (%DV) is the percentage of the Daily Value for each nutrient in a serving of the food. The Daily Values are reference amounts (expressed in grams, milligrams, or micrograms) of nutrients to consume or not to exceed each day.

The %DV shows how much a nutrient in a serving of a food contributes to a total daily diet for adults. The %DV helps you determine if a serving of food is high or low in a nutrient.

References

1. Canada’s food guide (2020). Cultures, food traditions and healthy eating. https://food-guide.canada.ca/en/healthy-eating-recommendations/enjoy-your-food/cultures-food-traditions-and-healthy-eating/
2. College of Early Childhood Educators (2023). Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice. https://www.college-ece.ca/public/code-and-standards/
3. Concordia University (n.d.). Summary of Canada’s Food Guide. https://www.concordia.ca/cunews/offices/provost/health/topics/healthy-eating/summary-canada-food-guide.html
4. George, A. and Willimas J.Q. (2023). Cooking in two worlds: A process guide for incorporating indigenous foods into institutions. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/agriculture-and-seafood/feedbc/indigenous-and-traditional-foods/processguide_28pg_0523_web.pdf
5. Government of British Columbia (2023). Why is serving Indigenous foods so important? https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/agriculture-and-seafood/feedbc/indigenous-and-traditional-foods/why_is_serving_indigenous_foods_so_important_web.pdf
6. Government of Canada (2016.) Food Additives. https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/food-safety/food-additives.html
7. Government of Canada (2021). Food Colours in Essences/Flavourings, Oils, Sweets and Processed Vegetables – April 1, 2018 to March 31, 2019. https://inspection.canada.ca/food-safety-for-industry/food-chemistry-and-microbiology/food-safety-testing-reports-and-journal-articles/food-colours-in-essences-flavourings/eng/1614983347251/1614983347580
8. Statista (n.d.). Quarterly retail sales of vitamins, minerals and other health supplements in Canada from 1st quarter of 2014 to 4th quarter of 2021. https://www.statista.com/statistics/471444/quarterly-retail-sales-of-drugs-vitamins-and-supplements-canada/#:~:text=Sales%20of%20vitamins%2C%20minerals%20and%20other%20health%20supplements%20amounted%20to,the%20fourth%20quarter%20of%202021.
9. Statistics Canada (n.d.). Use of nutritional supplements, 2015. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/82-625-x/2017001/article/14831-eng.htm
10. The Globe and Mail, March 15, 2023. With food costs soaring and no national program, Canadian schools struggle to feed students. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-school-food-programs-rising-costs/#:~:text=Among%20G7%20countries%2C%20Canada%20is,build%20a%20school%20food%20policy.