2 Theoretical Approaches to Ethical decision-making

The field of ethics and decision-making is very broad, and you can take any number of courses in ethics and philosophy at Western. The purpose of this section is not to provide a comprehensive overview of the theoretical underpinnings of ethical decision making, rather to highlight some of the ways we can classify the different decision-making processes that project managers and team members may be faced with. Below, three common methodological approaches/considerations are highlighted.

Virtue Ethics

This perspective on ethics focuses on the determination of “good’ from ‘bad’, whether we are talking about worth of an individual person or a decision. Worth or quality is based on our own values and an assessment of the character of another individual or their decisions. The Greek philosophers who proposed this way of contemplating ethical choices would have believed that rewarding and modeling virtuous behaviours and habits empowers individuals to make good choices when they are faced with an ethical dilemma (i.e. good people make good choices). Indeed, Aristotle defined virtue as “competence in pursuit of excellence”.[1]

For example, in an evaluation of different health care projects, a virtue ethics perspective would highlight the decisions and actions related to the nature of illness, compassionate care, honesty, and morally correct actions. It is sometimes easier to think of situations where the virtue ethics have not been applied – e.g. The Nuremberg Trials (German wartime medical experimentation), the Stanford Prison study or the Tuskegee Syphillis study. By reviewing these three situations, we can see where the good or worth of the individuals was emphasized by a series of unethical decisions.

Utilitarian Ethics

This perspective on ethics is effectively a form of consequentialism since it focuses on outcomes vs. the actual decision points themselves. In this way of approaching ethical decision-making, moral or correct decisions are evaluated based on extent to which they promote “more happiness than unhappiness”. The recent COVID-19 lockdowns around the world are good examples of the application of utilitarian ethics:  while no one was happy to be locked down and have our freedom reduced, the decision to lockdown was made by authorities in an attempt to reduce the number of active cases, prevent further spread, and reduce the burden/strain on medical systems.

The so-called ‘ratio of happy to unhappy” is not consistent in all situations (e.g. there can be a significant difference in circumstances, for example, if a homeless person loses $20 on the street versus a billionaire losing $20) and choices initially accepted as moral may later be rejected in specific circumstances. You can probably think of many historical events where the decision-makers had good intentions and believed their choices would improve quality of life, etc., but later on, their ideas were unanimously rejected as flawed or unethical. Utilitarian ethical approaches often lead to further moral issues and conflict since we cannot predict the future:  we don’t always know if the consequences of our actions are going to be good or bad, nor for whom will they be good or bad (e.g. they could create further disparities in certain individuals).

Deontological Ethics

In this assessment of ethics, choices and human actions are evaluated relative to obligation or duty, and the application is universal in all circumstances. Essentially, deontology uses rules that help us to determine right from wrong (e.g. do not take things that are not yours, do not tell lies, etc.) This view considers the moral theories that guide and assess our choices of what we ought to do (deontic theories), contrasted with those that guide and assess what kind of person we are and should be (virtue theories).

Most professions have their own code of values or ethical statements that help guide professionals in upholding the values of their professions every day in their work. These codes or oaths are essentially a form of deontology. Project management is no different! You can view the Project Management Institute’s Code of Ethics and see the value statements and rules that project managers must follow.

Have a look at this website and review the code of ethics for project managers:  https://www.pmi.org/codeofethics

In project management, we understand that there are situations where a solid foundation in  ethics and ethical decision-making help us to determine good from bad, and judgement of character or circumstances. Ethics guides our behaviour and determining appropriate responses. For example, ethical concerns and dilemmas have been identified at all stages of the project life cycle and include the following:

• RFPs (request for proposal)
• Falsification of estimates
• Negligence of responsibility
• Predetermined outcomes
• Bribery
• Discrimination
• Risk management
• False claims of competency
• Shortcuts and sub-standard materials
• Padding expense accounts
• Reluctance to admit failure
• Disclosure of information or adverse events
• Failing to honour commitments

Robb, D.J. (1996). Ethics in Project Management:  Issues, Practice & Motive. Project Management Network 10(12), pp 13-16.

Questions to consider:   What are the PMI’s four key values and what do they promote? Why do you think that these were chosen? Do you think this list is sufficiently comprehensive? Can you think of others that could be relevant to project managers from other codes or oaths that you are familiar with?  What is a decision you might need to make in your own project that would be influenced by these four values?

Ethics permeates all areas of project management; it can’t be separated. Obviously, the stakes may be higher in the private sector where decisions and time = money. However, when working on projects in health care, project managers are often working as stewards of the public purse, using taxpayer dollars to roll out new clinical projects and services planning.   For project managers, decision making points are often punctuated by issue sensitivity and intensity of responses.

Research Ethics

Sometimes in health care, your project may also be governed by a research ethics framework. If your project seeks to generate new knowledge and theories (vs. program evaluation), your proposal will need to be reviewed and approved by a research ethics board.  At Western, the Office of Research Ethics reviews all clinical and non-medical research that takes place on campus and in affiliated hospitals.

In Canada, human ethics research is governed by the Tri-Council Policy Statement (2) and in the United States, the NIH Guiding Principles for Clinical Research.

The document at this link provides a decision-tree that helps you to determine whether or not your project will require ethics review. Normally, work that is part of normal clinical services planning and improvement would not be considered research under the TCPS (i.e. it is considered process improvement or program evaluation). Clinical trials and other formal studies will need approval before human subjects can be engaged for participation.