Glossary

temperature at which the volume of a gas would be zero according to Charles’s law.

How closely a measurement aligns with a correct value

substance that produces H3O+ when dissolved in water

is an equilibrium constant that gives numerical representation of an acid’s strength in a solution based its degree of dissociation in water. The greater the Ka, the stronger the acid. 

reaction involving the transfer of a hydrogen ion between reactant species

equilibrium constant for the ionization of a weak acid

describes a solution in which [H3O+] > [OH−]

Inner transition metal in the bottom of the bottom two rows of the periodic table

electrode that participates in the oxidation-reduction reaction of an electrochemical cell; the mass of an active electrode changes during the oxidation-reduction reaction

A list of elements that will replace elements below them in single-replacement reactions.

amount of product formed in a reaction

force of attraction between molecules of different chemical identities

element in group 1

primary battery that uses an alkaline (often potassium hydroxide) electrolyte; designed to be an exact replacement for the dry cell, but with more energy storage and less electrolyte leakage than typical dry cell

element in group 2

solid mixture of a metallic element and one or more additional elements

positively charged particle consisting of two protons and two neutrons

(also, Gay-Lussac’s law) pressure of a given number of moles of gas is directly proportional to its kelvin temperature when the volume is held constant

molecules possessing both hydrophobic (nonpolar) and a hydrophilic (polar) parts

Able to both donate and accept a proton, and thus able to react both as an acid and a base

species that can act as either an acid or a base

extent of the displacement caused by a wave (for sinusoidal waves, it is one-half the difference from the peak height to the trough depth, and the intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude)

chemical species of interest; in a titration experiment, it is the solution of unknown solution for which you would like to determine either the concentration of the equilibrium constant.

quantum number distinguishing the different shapes of orbitals; it is also a measure of the orbital angular momentum

negatively charged atom or molecule (contains more electrons than protons)

electrode in an electrochemical cell at which oxidation occurs; information about the anode is recorded on the left side of the salt bridge in cell notation

solution for which water is the solvent

An acid as a compound that dissolves in water to produce H+ ions (hydronium ions, H3O+)

a compound that dissolves in water to to yield hydroxide ions (OH−)

unit of pressure; 1 atm = 101,325 Pa

smallest particle of an element that can enter into a chemical combination

average mass of atoms of an element, expressed in amu

(also, unified atomic mass unit, u, or Dalton, Da) unit of mass equal to 1/12 the mass of a 12C atom

number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

mathematical function that describes the behavior of an electron in an atom (also called the wavefunction), it can be used to find the probability of locating an electron in a specific region around the nucleus, as well as other dynamical variables

procedure in which the electron configuration of the elements is determined by “building” them in order of atomic numbers, adding one proton to the nucleus and one electron to the proper subshell at a time

reaction between identical species yielding ionic products; for water, this reaction involves transfer of protons to yield hydronium and hydroxide ions

rate of a chemical reaction computed as the ratio of a measured change in amount or concentration of substance to the time interval over which the change occurred

volume of a gas at constant temperature and pressure is proportional to the number of gas molecules

experimentally determined value of the number of entities comprising 1 mole of substance, equal to 6.022 × 1023 mol−1

location in a trigonal bipyramidal geometry in which there is another atom at a 180° angle and the equatorial positions are at a 90° angle

chemical equation with equal numbers of atoms for each element in the reactant and product

(bar or b) unit of pressure; 1 bar = 100,000 Pa

device used to measure atmospheric pressure

substance that produces OH− when dissolved in water

is an equilibrium constant that measures how completely a base dissociates into ions in water. The greater the Kb, the stronger the base. 

equilibrium constant for the ionization of a weak base

describes a solution in which [H3O+] < [OH−]

galvanic cell or series of cells that produces a current; in theory, any galvanic cell

compound that contains hydrogen and one other element, bonded in a way that imparts acidic properties to the compound (ability to release H+ ions when dissolved in water)

compound containing two different elements.

idealized perfect absorber of all incident electromagnetic radiation; such bodies emit electromagnetic radiation in characteristic continuous spectra called blackbody radiation

structural model in which an electron moves around the nucleus only in circular orbits, each with a specific allowed radius; the orbiting electron does not normally emit electromagnetic radiation, but does so when changing from one orbit to another.

temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the pressure of the gas above it

elevation of the boiling point of a liquid by addition of a solute

the proportionality constant in the equation relating boiling point elevation to solute molality; also known as the ebullioscopic constant

device designed to measure the energy change for processes occurring under conditions of constant volume; commonly used for reactions involving solid and gaseous reactants or products

angle between any two covalent bonds that share a common atom

separation of charge in a bond that depends on the difference in electronegativity and the bond distance represented by partial charges or a vector

(also, bond length) distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms

(also, bond dissociation energy) energy required to break a covalent bond in a gaseous substance

distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms at which the lowest potential energy is achieved

thermochemical cycle relating the various energetic steps involved in the formation of an ionic solid from the relevant elements

volume of a given number of moles of gas held at constant temperature is inversely proportional to the pressure under which it is measured

A compound that donates a proton to another compound

a compound that accepts a proton

device used for the precise delivery of variable liquid volumes, such as in a titration analysis

unit of heat or other energy; the amount of energy required to raise 1 gram of water by 1 degree Celsius; 1 cal is defined as 4.184 J

device used to measure the amount of heat absorbed or released in a chemical or physical process

process of measuring the amount of heat involved in a chemical or physical process

flow of liquid within a porous material due to the attraction of the liquid molecules to the surface of the material and to other liquid molecules

electrode in an electrochemical cell at which reduction occurs; information about the cathode is recorded on the right side of the salt bridge in cell notation

method of protecting metal by using a sacrificial anode and effectively making the metal that needs protecting the cathode, thus preventing its oxidation

positively charged atom or molecule (contains fewer electrons than protons)

shorthand way to represent the reactions in an electrochemical cell

created when two dissimilar metals are connected together and is a measure of the energy per unit charge available from the oxidation-reduction reaction

Unit of temperature; water freezes at 0 °C and boils at 100 °C on this scale.

element in group 16

volume of a given number of moles of gas is directly proportional to its kelvin temperature when the pressure is held constant

change producing a different kind of matter from the original kind of matter

symbolic representation of a chemical reaction

behavior that is related to the change of one kind of matter into another kind of matter

one-, two-, or three-letter abbreviation used to represent an element or its atoms

area of science that deals with the relationships between heat, work, and all forms of energy associated with chemical and physical processes

Study of the composition, properties, and interactions of matter

mathematical relationship between the temperature, vapor pressure, and enthalpy of vaporization for a substance

number placed in front of symbols or formulas in a chemical equation to indicate their relative amount

force of attraction between identical molecules

property of a solution that depends only on the concentration of a solute species

(also, colloidal dispersion) mixture in which relatively large solid or liquid particles are dispersed uniformly throughout a gas, liquid, or solid

gravimetric technique used to determine the elemental composition of a compound via the collection and weighing of its gaseous combustion products

vigorous redox reaction producing significant amounts of energy in the form of heat and, sometimes, light

effect on equilibrium when a substance with an ion in common with the dissolved species is added to the solution; causes a decrease in the solubility of an ionic species, or a decrease in the ionization of a weak acid or base

chemical equation in which all dissolved ionic reactants and products, including spectator ions, are explicitly represented by formulas for their dissociated ions

A chemical reaction in which a single substance is produced from multiple reactants.

pure substance that can be decomposed into two or more elements

ratio of the experimentally measured molar volume for a gas to its molar volume as computed from the ideal gas equation

qualitative term for a solution containing solute at a relatively high concentration

quantitative measure of the relative amounts of solute and solvent present in a solution

change from a gaseous to a liquid state

the product that results when a base accepts a proton

the product that remains after an acid donates a proton

electromagnetic radiation given off in an unbroken series of wavelengths (e.g., white light from the sun)

(also, dative bond) bond formed when one atom provides both electrons in a shared pair

electron in an atom that occupies the orbitals of the inner shells

degradation of metal through an electrochemical process

attractive force between the nuclei of a molecule’s atoms and pairs of electrons between the atoms

(also, molecular compound) composed of molecules formed by atoms of two or more different elements

one-half the distance between the nuclei of two identical atoms when they are joined by a covalent bond

process whereby biological cells become shriveled due to loss of water by osmosis

temperature and pressure above which a gas cannot be condensed into a liquid

Volume of a cube with an edge length of exactly 1 cm.

SI unit of volume.

written as: d orbitals
region of space with high electron density that is either four lobed or contains a dumbbell and torus shape; describes orbitals with l = 2. An electron in this orbital is called a d electron

alternative unit equivalent to the atomic mass unit

set of postulates that established the fundamental properties of atoms

total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the component gases.

A chemical reaction in which a single substance becomes more than one substance.

electron orbitals having the same energy levels

Ratio of mass to volume for a substance or object.

change from a gaseous state directly to a solid state

molecules that contain two identical atoms chemically bonded together

movement of an atom or molecule from a region of relatively high concentration to one of relatively low concentration (discussed in this chapter with regard to gaseous species, but applicable to species in any phase)

qualitative term for a solution containing solute at a relatively low concentration

process of adding solvent to a solution in order to lower the concentration of solutes

(also, factor-label method) versatile mathematical approach that can be applied to computations ranging from simple unit conversions to more complex, multi-step calculations involving several different quantities

property of a molecule that describes the separation of charge determined by the sum of the individual bond moments based on the molecular structure

intermolecular attraction between two permanent dipoles

A diprotic acid is an acid that yields two H+ ions per acid molecule. Examples of diprotic acids are sulfuric acid, H2SO4, and carbonic acid, H2CO3

substance present as relatively large solid or liquid particles in a colloid

(also, London dispersion force) attraction between two rapidly fluctuating, temporary dipoles; significant only when particles are very close together

solid, liquid, or gas in which colloidal particles are dispersed

physical process accompanying the dissolution of an ionic compound in which the compound’s constituent ions are solvated and dispersed throughout the solution

describes the process by which solute components are dispersed in a solvent

covalent bond in which two pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms

A chemical reaction in which parts of two ionic compounds are exchanged.

primary battery, also called a zinc-carbon battery; can be used in any orientation because it uses a paste as the electrolyte; tends to leak electrolyte when stored

state of a system in which reciprocal processes are occurring at equal rates

charge that leads to the Coulomb force exerted by the nucleus on an electron, calculated as the nuclear charge minus shielding

transfer of gaseous atoms or molecules from a container to a vacuum through very small openings

physical property of an object that causes it to be attracted toward or repelled from another charged object; each charged object generates and is influenced by a force called an electric force

noncontact force observed between electrically charged objects

process using electrical energy to cause a nonspontaneous process to occur

substances that produce ions when dissolved in water and whose aqueous solutions can conduct electricity

electrochemical cell in which electrolysis is used; electrochemical cell with negative cell potentials

energy transmitted by waves that have an electric-field component and a magnetic-field component

range of energies that electromagnetic radiation can comprise, including radio, microwaves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays; since electromagnetic radiation energy is proportional to the frequency and inversely proportional to the wavelength, the spectrum can also be specified by ranges of frequencies or wavelengths

negatively charged, subatomic particle of relatively low mass located outside the nucleus

energy required to add an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion

electronic structure of an atom in its ground state given as a listing of the orbitals occupied by the electrons

arrangement around a central atom of all regions of electron density (bonds, lone pairs, or unpaired electrons)

tendency of an atom to attract electrons in a bond to itself

depositing a thin layer of one metal on top of a conducting surface

phenomenon of two objects with opposite charges attracting each other

phenomenon of two objects with like charges repelling each other

substance that is composed of a single type of atom; a substance that cannot be decomposed by a chemical change

sum of average atomic masses for all atoms represented in an empirical formula

simplest or most reduced ratio of elements in a compound

amphiphilic substance used to stabilize the particles of some emulsions

colloid formed from immiscible liquids

measured volume of titrant solution that yields the change in sample solution appearance or other property expected for stoichiometric equivalence (see equivalence point)

chemical reaction or physical change that absorbs heat

capacity to supply heat or do work

sum of a system’s internal energy and the mathematical product of its pressure and volume

heat released or absorbed by a system under constant pressure during a chemical or physical process

one of the three positions in a trigonal bipyramidal geometry with 120° angles between them; the axial positions are located at a 90° angle

in chemical reactions, the state in which the conversion of reactants into products and the conversion of products back into reactants occur simultaneously at the same rate; state of balance

value of the reaction quotient for a system at equilibrium

volume of titrant solution required to react completely with the analyte in a titration analysis; provides a stoichiometric amount of titrant for the sample’s analyte according to the titration reaction

Number derived by counting or by definition

reactant present in an amount greater than required by the reaction stoichiometry

state having an energy greater than the ground-state energy

chemical reaction or physical change that releases heat

work done as a system expands or contracts against external pressure

property of a substance that depends on the amount of the substance

versatile mathematical approach that can be applied to computations ranging from simple unit conversions to more complex, multi-step calculations involving several different quantities

Unit of temperature; water freezes at 32 °F and boils at 212 °F on this scale

internal energy of a system changes due to heat flow in or out of the system or work done on or by the system

charge that would result on an atom by taking the number of valence electrons on the neutral atom and subtracting the nonbonding electrons and the number of bonds (one-half of the bonding electrons)

sum of the average masses for all atoms represented in a chemical formula; for covalent compounds, this is also the molecular mass

molecule that contains an odd number of electrons

change from a liquid state to a solid state

temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are in equilibrium; see also melting point

lowering of the freezing point of a liquid by addition of a solute

(also, cryoscopic constant) proportionality constant in the equation relating freezing point depression to solute molality

number of wave cycles (peaks or troughs) that pass a specified point in space per unit time

devices that produce an electrical current as long as fuel and oxidizer are continuously added; more efficient than internal combustion engines

(also called the elementary charge) equals the magnitude of the charge of an electron (e) with e = 1.602 × 10−19 C

electrochemical cell that involves a spontaneous oxidation-reduction reaction; electrochemical cells with positive cell potentials; also called a voltaic cell

method for protecting iron by covering it with zinc, which will oxidize before the iron; zinc-plated iron

state in which matter has neither definite volume nor shape

colloidal dispersion of a liquid in a solid

rates of diffusion and effusion of gases are inversely proportional to the square roots of their molecular masses

quantitative chemical analysis method involving the separation of an analyte from a sample by a physical or chemical process and subsequent mass measurements of the analyte, reaction product, and/or sample

state in which the electrons in an atom, ion, or molecule have the lowest energy possible

vertical column of the periodic table

vertical column of the periodic table

an equation that shows whether each reactant loses or gains electrons in a reaction.

element in group 17

transfer of thermal energy between two bodies

extensive property of a body of matter that represents the quantity of heat required to increase its temperature by 1 degree Celsius (or 1 kelvin)

It is fundamentally impossible to determine simultaneously and exactly both the momentum and the position of a particle.

rupture of red blood cells due to the accumulation of excess water by osmosis

law stating the proportional relationship between the concentration of dissolved gas in a solution and the partial pressure of the gas in contact with the solution

the unit of frequency, which is the number of cycles per second, s−1

if a process can be represented as the sum of several steps, the enthalpy change of the process equals the sum of the enthalpy changes of the steps

equilibria between reactants and products in different phases

combination of substances with a composition that varies from point to point

equilibria within a single phase

(also, solution) combination of substances with a composition that is uniform throughout

Every orbital in a sublevel is singly occupied before any orbital is doubly occupied.
All of the electrons in singly occupied orbitals have the same spin (to maximize total spin).

compound composed only of hydrogen and carbon; the major component of fossil fuels

occurs when exceptionally strong dipoles attract; bonding that exists when hydrogen is bonded to one of the three most electronegative elements: F, O, or N

pressure exerted by a fluid due to gravity

of greater osmotic pressure

molecule containing at least one main group element that has more than eight electrons in its valence shell

Tentative explanation of observations that acts as a guide for gathering and checking information

of less osmotic pressure

hypothetical gas whose physical properties are perfectly described by the gas laws

constant derived from the ideal gas equation R = 0.08226 L atm mol–1 K–1 or 8.314 L kPa mol–1 K–1

relation between the pressure, volume, amount, and temperature of a gas under conditions derived by combination of the simple gas laws

solution that forms with no accompanying energy change

of negligible mutual solubility; typically refers to liquid substances

substance added to the sample in a titration analysis to permit visual detection of the end point

temporary dipole formed when the electrons of an atom or molecule are distorted by the instantaneous dipole of a neighboring atom or molecule

electrode that allows current to flow, but that does not otherwise participate in the oxidation-reduction reaction in an electrochemical cell; the mass of an inert electrode does not change during the oxidation-reduction reaction; inert electrodes are often made of platinum or gold because these metals are chemically unreactive.

(also, noble gas) element in group 18

tendency of heavy atoms to form ions in which their valence s electrons are not lost

instantaneous rate of a chemical reaction at t = 0 s (immediately after the reaction has begun)

(also, lanthanide or actinide) element in the bottom two rows; if in the first row, also called lanthanide, or if in the second row, also called actinide

of relatively low solubility; dissolving only to a slight extent

temporary dipole that occurs for a brief moment in time when the electrons of an atom or molecule are distributed asymmetrically

rate of a chemical reaction at any instant in time, determined by the slope of the line tangential to a graph of concentration as a function of time

property of wave-propagated energy related to the amplitude of the wave, such as brightness of light or loudness of sound

property of a substance that is independent of the amount of the substance

pattern typically consisting of alternating bright and dark fringes; it results from constructive and destructive interference of waves

noncovalent attractive force between atoms, molecules, and/or ions

total of all possible kinds of energy present in a substance or substances

electrically charged atom or molecule (contains unequal numbers of protons and electrons)

solvated anion/cation pair held together by moderate electrostatic attraction

electrostatic attraction between an ion and a polar molecule

equilibrium constant for the autoionization of water

electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely charged ions of an ionic compound

compound composed of cations and anions combined in ratios, yielding an electrically neutral substance

energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion; the associated number (e.g., second ionization energy) corresponds to the charge of the ion produced (X2+)

group of ions or atoms that have identical electron configurations

of equal osmotic pressure

atoms that contain the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons

SI unit of energy; 1 joule is the kinetic energy of an object with a mass of 2 kilograms moving with a velocity of 1 meter per second, 1 J = 1 kg m2/s and 4.184 J = 1 cal

equilibrium constant for reactions based on concentrations of reactants and products

SI unit of temperature; 273.15 K = 0 ºC

Standard SI unit of mass; 1 kg = approximately 2.2 pounds

energy of a moving body, in joules, equal to \frac{1}{2}mv^2 (where m = mass and v = velocity)

theory based on simple principles and assumptions that effectively explains ideal gas behavior

written as: KP
equilibrium constant for gas-phase reactions based on partial pressures of reactants and products

inner transition metal in the top of the bottom two rows of the periodic table

energy required to separate one mole of an ionic solid into its component gaseous ions

Statement that summarizes a vast number of experimental observations, and describes or predicts some aspect of the natural world.

when matter converts from one type to another or changes form, there is no detectable change in the total amount of matter present

(also, law of definite proportions) all samples of a pure compound contain the same elements in the same proportions by mass

(also, law of constant composition) all samples of a pure compound contain the same elements in the same proportions by mass

when a reversible reaction has attained equilibrium at a given temperature, the reaction quotient remains constant

when two elements react to form more than one compound, a fixed mass of one element will react with masses of the other element in a ratio of small whole numbers

when a chemical system at equilibrium is disturbed, it returns to equilibrium by counteracting the disturbance

secondary battery that consists of multiple cells; the lead acid battery found in automobiles has six cells and a voltage of 12 V

Measure of one dimension of an object

any species that can accept a pair of electrons and form a coordinate covalent bond

compound or ion that contains a coordinate covalent bond between a Lewis acid and a Lewis base

any species that can donate a pair of electrons and form a coordinate covalent bond

diagram showing lone pairs and bonding pairs of electrons in a molecule or an ion

symbol for an element or monatomic ion that uses a dot to represent each valence electron in the element or ion

reactant present in an amount lower than required by the reaction stoichiometry, thus limiting the amount of product generated

electromagnetic radiation emitted at discrete wavelengths by a specific atom (or atoms) in an excited state

shape in which two outside groups are placed on opposite sides of a central atom

state of matter that has a definite volume but indefinite shape

Also known as cubic decimeter. Unit of volume; 1 L = 1,000 cm3

very popular secondary battery; uses lithium ions to conduct current and is light, rechargeable, and produces a nearly constant potential as it discharges

(also, dispersion force) attraction between two rapidly fluctuating, temporary dipoles; significant only when particles are very close together

two (a pair of) valence electrons that are not used to form a covalent bond

Realm of everyday things that are large enough to sense directly by human sight and touch.

quantum number signifying the orientation of an atomic orbital around the nucleus; orbitals having different values of ml but the same subshell value of l have the same energy (are degenerate), but this degeneracy can be removed by application of an external magnetic field

(also, representative element) element in columns 1, 2, and 12–18

device used to measure the pressure of a gas trapped in a container

fundamental property indicating amount of matter

sum of the numbers of neutrons and protons in the nucleus of an atom

ratio of solute-to-solution mass expressed as a percentage

A calculation in which you start with a given mass of a substance and calculate the mass of another substance involved in the chemical equation.

ratio of solute mass to solution volume, expressed as a percentage

anything that occupies space and has mass

average distance a molecule travels between collisions

change from a solid state to a liquid state

temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are in equilibrium; see also freezing point

element that is shiny, malleable, good conductor of heat and electricity

element that conducts heat and electricity moderately well, and possesses some properties of metals and some properties of nonmetals

Standard metric and SI unit of length; 1 m = approximately 1.094 yards

Realm of things that are much too small to be sensed directly.

1/1,000 of a liter; equal to 1 cm3

solid materials that occur in the earth

mutually soluble in all proportions; typically refers to liquid substances

matter that can be separated into its components by physical means

a concentration unit defined as the ratio of the numbers of moles of solute to the mass of the solvent in kilograms

the mass in grams of 1 mole of that substance

solubility of a compound expressed in units of moles per liter (mol/L)

unit of concentration, defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 liter of solution

the amount of a substance containing the same number of atoms as the number of atoms in a sample of pure 12C weighing exactly 12 g

concentration unit defined as the ratio of the molar amount of a mixture component to the total number of moles of all mixture components

A calculation in which you start with a given number of moles of a substance and calculate the mass of another substance involved in the chemical equation, or vice versa.

(also, covalent compound) composed of molecules formed by atoms of two or more different elements

chemical equation in which all reactants and products are represented as neutral substances

true formula for a compound; lists how many atoms of each element are in the compound

structure that includes only the placement of the atoms in the molecule

bonded collection of two or more atoms of the same or different elements

ion composed of a single atom

system characterized by more than one state of balance between a slightly soluble ionic solid and an aqueous solution of ions working simultaneously

chemical equation in which only those dissolved ionic reactants and products that undergo a chemical or physical change are represented (excludes spectator ions)

The solution in which the concentration of hydroxide ions equals the concentration of hydrogen ions [H3O+] = [OH−]

reaction between an acid and a base to produce salt and water

uncharged, subatomic particle located in the nucleus

(NiCd battery) secondary battery that uses cadmium, which is a toxic heavy metal; heavier than lithium ion batteries, but with similar performance characteristics

(also, inert gas) element in group 18

any point of a standing wave with zero amplitude

system of rules for naming objects of interest

(also, pure covalent bond) covalent bond between atoms of identical electronegativities

are substances that do not readily ionize (do not produce ions) when dissolved in aqueous (water) solution or in molten state and are poor conductors of electricity.

element that appears dull, poor conductor of heat and electricity

temperature at which a liquid’s vapor pressure equals 1 atm (760 torr)

massive, positively charged center of an atom made up of protons and neutrons

unit used for quantifying energy provided by digestion of foods, defined as 1000 cal or 1 kcal

shape in which six outside groups are placed around a central atom such that a three-dimensional shape is generated with four groups forming a square and the other two forming the apex of two pyramids, one above and one below the square plane

guideline that states main group atoms will form structures in which eight valence electrons interact with each nucleus, counting bonding electrons as interacting with both atoms connected by the bond

pictorial representation of the electron configuration showing each orbital as a box and each electron as an arrow

diffusion of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane

opposing pressure required to prevent bulk transfer of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane

difference between the theoretical potential and actual potential in an electrolytic cell; the “extra” voltage required to make some nonspontaneous electrochemical reaction to occur

process in which an element’s oxidation number is increased by loss of electrons

(also, oxidation state) the charge each atom of an element would have in a compound if the compound were ionic

(also, redox reaction) reaction involving a change in oxidation number for one or more reactant elements

(also, oxidant) substance that brings about the oxidation of another substance, and in the process becomes reduced

compound that contains hydrogen, oxygen, and one other element, bonded in a way that imparts acidic properties to the compound (ability to release H+ ions when dissolved in water)

polyatomic anion composed of a central atom bonded to oxygen atoms

written as: p orbitals
dumbbell-shaped region of space with high electron density, describes orbitals with l = 1. An electron in this orbital is called a p electron

pressure exerted by an individual gas in a mixture

of moderate mutual solubility; typically refers to liquid substances

ratio of solute-to-solution mass multiplied by 109

ratio of solute-to-solution mass multiplied by 106

SI unit of pressure; 1 Pa = 1 N/m2

It is a widely-used metal finishing process to prevent corrosion

specifies that no two electrons in an atom can have the same value for all four quantum numbers

percentage by mass of the various elements in a compound

ratio of the concentration of the ionized acid to the initial acid concentration, times 100

measure of the efficiency of a reaction, expressed as a percentage of the theoretical yield

(also, series) horizontal row of the periodic table

properties of the elements are periodic function of their atomic numbers.

table of the elements that places elements with similar chemical properties close together

logarithmic measure of the concentration of hydronium ions in a solution

The pH scale measures how acidic an object is.

pressure-temperature graph summarizing conditions under which the phases of a substance can exist

smallest possible packet of electromagnetic radiation, a particle of light

change in the state or properties of matter that does not involve a change in its chemical composition

characteristic of matter that is not associated with any change in its chemical composition

gaseous state of matter containing a large number of electrically charged atoms and/or molecules

element in group 15

logarithmic measure of the concentration of hydroxide ions in a solution

covalent bond between atoms of different electronegativities; a covalent bond with a positive end and a negative end

(also, dipole) molecule with an overall dipole moment

measure of the ability of a charge to distort a molecule’s charge distribution (electron cloud)

ion composed of more than one atom

the ability of a substance to crystallize into different crystalline forms

concentrations or partial pressures of components of a reaction at equilibrium (commonly used to describe conditions before a disturbance)

energy of a particle or system of particles derived from relative position, composition, or condition

unit of pressure common in the US

insoluble product that forms from reaction of soluble reactants

reaction that produces one or more insoluble products; when reactants are ionic compounds, sometimes called double-displacement or metathesis

How closely a measurement matches the same measurement when repeated

force exerted per unit area

single-use nonrechargeable battery

quantum number specifying the shell an electron occupies in an atom

substance formed by a chemical or physical change; shown on the right side of the arrow in a chemical equation

positively charged, subatomic particle located in the nucleus

homogeneous substance that has a constant composition

the determination of the amount or concentration of a substance in a sample

occurring only in specific discrete values, not continuous

the study of matter and its interactions with energy on the scale of atomic and subatomic particles. It includes the work of Schrodinger, Heisenberg and other scientists.

integer number having only specific allowed values and used to characterize the arrangement of electrons in an atom

the partial pressure exerted by a solution component is equal to the product of the component’s mole fraction in the solution and its equilibrium vapor pressure in the pure state

mathematical representation relating reaction rate to changes in amount, concentration, or pressure of reactant or product species per unit time

amount of gas diffusing through a given area over a given time

measure of the speed at which a chemical reaction takes place

substance undergoing a chemical or physical change; shown on the left side of the arrow in a chemical equation

ratio of the product of molar concentrations (or pressures) of the products to that of the reactants, each concentration (or pressure) being raised to the power equal to the coefficient in the equation

(also, reductant) substance that brings about the reduction of another substance, and in the process becomes oxidized

process in which an element’s oxidation number is decreased by gain of electrons

(also, main-group element) element in columns 1, 2, and 12–18

situation in which one Lewis structure is insufficient to describe the bonding in a molecule and the average of multiple structures is observed

two or more Lewis structures that have the same arrangement of atoms but different arrangements of electrons

average of the resonance forms shown by the individual Lewis structures

chemical reaction that can proceed in both the forward and reverse directions under given conditions

measure of average velocity for a group of particles calculated as the square root of the average squared velocity

Procedure used to ensure that calculated results properly reflect the uncertainty in the measurements used in the calculation

spherical region of space with high electron density, describes orbitals with l = 0. An electron in this orbital is called an s electron

more active, inexpensive metal used as the anode in cathodic protection; frequently made from magnesium or zinc

Ionic compound that can be formed by the reaction of an acid with a base that contains a cation and an anion other than hydroxide or oxide. A neutral chemical compound held together by an ionic bond consisting of positively charged cations and negatively charged anions.

of concentration equal to solubility; containing the maximum concentration of solute possible for a given temperature and pressure

Path of discovery that leads from question and observation to law or hypothesis to theory, combined with experimental verification of the hypothesis and any necessary modification of the theory.

method to simplify very large and very small numbers by utilizing a base 10 exponential methodology

Standards fixed by international agreement in the International System of Units (Le Système International d’Unités)

battery that can be recharged

process in which ions are separated using differences in their solubility with a given precipitating reagent

a membrane that selectively permits passage of certain ions or molecules

(also, period) horizontal row of the period table

set of orbitals with the same principal quantum number, n

Standards fixed by international agreement in the International System of Units (Le Système International d’Unités)

(also, significant figures) all of the measured digits in a determination, including the uncertain last digit

(also, significant digits) all of the measured digits in a determination, including the uncertain last digit

bond in which a single pair of electrons is shared between two atoms

(also, replacement) redox reaction involving the oxidation of an elemental substance by an ionic species

A chemical reaction in which one element is substituted for another element in a compound.

state of matter that is rigid, has a definite shape, and has a fairly constant volume

extent to which a solute may be dissolved in water, or any solvent

equilibrium constant for the dissolution of a slightly soluble electrolyte

of relatively high solubility; dissolving to a relatively large extent

solution component present in a concentration less than that of the solvent

Another name for a homogeneous mixture

exothermic process in which intermolecular attractive forces between the solute and solvent in a solution are established

solution component present in a concentration that is higher relative to other components

can be a group of atoms, molecules, ions etc. that are chemically identical

intensive property of a substance that represents the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of the substance by 1 degree Celsius (or 1 kelvin)

ion that does not undergo a chemical or physical change during a reaction, but its presence is required to maintain charge neutrality

number specifying the electron spin direction, either +1/2 or -1/2

physical or chemical change that occurs without the addition of energy from an external source

the cell potential when all reactants and products are in their standard states (1 bar or 1 atm or gases; 1 M for solutes), usually at 298.15 K; can be calculated by subtracting the standard reduction potential for the half-reaction at the anode from the standard reduction potential for the half-reaction occurring at the cathode

273.15 K (0 °C) and 1 atm (101.325 kPa)

heat released when one mole of a compound undergoes complete combustion under standard conditions

enthalpy change of a chemical reaction in which 1 mole of a pure substance is formed from its elements in their most stable states under standard state conditions

the electrode consists of hydrogen gas bubbling through hydrochloric acid over an inert platinum electrode whose reduction at standard conditions is assigned a value of 0 V; the reference point for standard reduction potentials

volume of 1 mole of gas at STP, approximately 22.4 L for gases behaving ideally

set of physical conditions as accepted as common reference conditions for reporting thermodynamic properties; 1 bar of pressure, and solutions at 1 molar concentrations, usually at a temperature of 298.15 K

(also, stationary wave) localized wave phenomenon characterized by discrete wavelengths determined by the boundary conditions used to generate the waves; standing waves are inherently quantized

property depending only on the state of a system, and not the path taken to reach that state

buildup of electric charge on the surface of an object; the arrangement of the charge remains constant (“static”)

The system of indicating a cation’s charge with roman numerals.

ratio of coefficients in a balanced chemical equation, used in computations relating amounts of reactants and products

relationships between the amounts of reactants and products of a chemical reaction

change to a reaction’s conditions that may cause a shift in the equilibrium

acid that reacts completely when dissolved in water to yield hydronium ions

base that reacts completely when dissolved in water to yield hydroxide ions

a substance that dissociates or ionizes completely when dissolved in water and can conduct electricity.

shows the atoms in a molecule and how they are connected

change from solid state directly to gaseous state

set of orbitals in an atom with the same values of n and l

substance at a temperature and pressure higher than its critical point; exhibits properties intermediate between those of gaseous and liquid states

of concentration that exceeds solubility; a nonequilibrium state

energy required to increase the area, or length, of a liquid surface by a given amount

all matter other than the system being studied

Specialized language used to represent components of the macroscopic and microscopic domains, such as chemical symbols, chemical formulas, chemical equations, graphs, drawings, and calculations.

portion of matter undergoing a chemical or physical change being studied

ntensive property of matter that is a quantitative measure of “hotness” and “coldness”

shape in which four outside groups are placed around a central atom such that a three-dimensional shape is generated with four corners and 109.5° angles between each pair and the central atom

amount of product that may be produced from a given amount of reactant(s) according to the reaction stoichiometry

Well-substantiated, comprehensive, testable explanation of a particular aspect of nature.

kinetic energy associated with the random motion of atoms and molecules

study of measuring the amount of heat absorbed or released during a chemical reaction or a physical change

is the "known" solution which has a precise and accurate concentration. It is placed in the buret during a titration experiment

a technique where a solution of known concentration is used to determine the concentration of an unknown solution. Typically, the titrant (the know solution) is added from a buret to a known quantity of the analyte (the unknown solution) until the reaction is complete.

quantitative chemical analysis method that involves measuring the volume of a reactant solution required to completely react with the analyte in a sample

unit of pressure

element in columns 3–11

shape in which five outside groups are placed around a central atom such that three form a flat triangle with 120° angles between each pair and the central atom, and the other two form the apex of two pyramids, one above and one below the triangular plane

shape in which three outside groups are placed in a flat triangle around a central atom with 120° angles between each pair and the central atom

bond in which three pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms

temperature and pressure at which the vapor, liquid, and solid phases of a substance are in equilibrium

scattering of visible light by a colloidal dispersion

Estimate of amount by which measurement differs from true value

alternative unit equivalent to the atomic mass unit

Sandard of comparison for measurements

Ratio of equivalent quantities expressed with different units; used to convert from one unit to a different unit

of concentration less than solubility

electrons in the outermost or valence shell (highest value of n) of a ground-state atom; determine how an element reacts

outermost shell of electrons in a ground-state atom; for main group elements, the orbitals with the highest n level (s and p subshells) are in the valence shell, while for transition metals, the highest energy s and d subshells make up the valence shell and for inner transition elements, the highest s, d, and f subshells are included

theory used to predict the bond angles in a molecule based on positioning regions of high electron density as far apart as possible to minimize electrostatic repulsion

modified version of the ideal gas equation containing additional terms to account for non-ideal gas behavior

attractive or repulsive force between molecules, including dipole-dipole, dipole-induced dipole, and London dispersion forces; does not include forces due to covalent or ionic bonding, or the attraction between ions and molecules

attractive or repulsive force between molecules, including dipole-dipole, dipole-induced dipole, and London dispersion forces; does not include forces due to covalent or ionic bonding, or the attraction between ions and molecules

the ratio of the number of moles of particles in a solution to the number of moles of formula units dissolved in the solution

(also, equilibrium vapor pressure) pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with a solid or a liquid at a given temperature

pressure exerted by water vapor in equilibrium with liquid water in a closed container at a specific temperature

change from liquid state to gaseous state

quantity having magnitude and direction

measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow

another name for a galvanic cell

Amount of space occupied by an object

ratio of solute-to-solution volume expressed as a percentage

oscillation that can transport energy from one point to another in space

term used to describe the fact that elementary particles including matter exhibit properties of both particles (including localized position, momentum) and waves (including nonlocalization, wavelength, frequency)

distance between two consecutive peaks or troughs in a wave

acid that reacts only to a slight extent when dissolved in water to yield hydronium ions

base that reacts only to a slight extent when dissolved in water to yield hydroxide ions

a substance that ionizes only partially when dissolved in water, thus producing an aqueous solution that conducts electricity poorly.

force that gravity exerts on an object

energy transfer due to changes in external, macroscopic variables such as pressure and volume; or causing matter to move against an opposing force