12 Glammed Up Greeks: Cosmetics in Ancient Greece

In ancient Greece, pale skin signified status. A painted face could provoke admiration or suspicion. Cosmetics were both tools of seduction and symbols of power, worn boldly by courtesans asserting their independence and applied subtly by elite women navigating ideals of modesty. Cosmetics reveal a complex story of gender class and control, and the delicate balance between virtue and vanity.

Beauty Standards

Literary descriptions of women considered to be beautiful reinforce the ideal of pale skin as an indication of status. Helen of Troy, famously recognized as “the face that launched a thousand ships”, is referred to as “white-armed Helen,” a descriptor aligning her with aristocratic femininity and the indoor life of an elite woman (Hom. Il. 3.122). Similarly, Athena enhances Penelope’s beauty, making her appear “whiter than sawn ivory” (Hom. Od. 18.195-9). These descriptions reinforce the connection to the domestic space, where household labour shielded women from the sun and the extraneous nature of outdoor labour. Thus, a fair complexion was a visible indication of privilege and virtue. To maintain and achieve this ideal, women often turned to cosmetics. However, this carried an inherent contradiction. In Xenophon’s Oeconomicus, Ischomachus criticizes his wife for applying white lead and alkanet juice, arguing that her use of makeup is deceptive and dishonest (Xen. Ec. 10.2). In this same text, she asks how she might appear truly beautiful rather than deceptively so, and he advises her to engage in domestic work, maintaining the order of the home and kneading bread (Xen. Ec. 10.3-7). His response demonstrates the contradictory expectations placed on women regarding beauty and labour. Ischomachus suggests that true beauty stems from domestic labour, reinforcing the idea that a woman’s value and attractiveness are tied to her role within the household. This exchange makes evident three key themes: the societal pressure on women to maintain beauty, the association between skin tone and domestic labour (see further chapter 13 ), and the use of beauty standards as an implicit tool to regulate women’s behaviour and enforce traditional gender roles.

Inventory of the Toilette, Uses, Production, and Danger

A fragmented passage from Aristophanes outlines the extensive toilette of a woman, listing items such as razors, mirrors, rouge, and more. Fig. 12.2 shows a stirring rod (Roman in date) that could be used for perfume or for accessing cosmetics stored in a narrow vessel. Aristophanes’ detailed inventory not only reflects the importance of women’s beauty rituals, but also highlights the lengths to which women went to maintain their appearance (Aristoph. Fr. 332a). Cosmetics, vital to this maintenance, were made from a variety of both natural and sometimes harmful substances. White lead was commonly applied to the face and arms to produce a pale appearance, despite its toxic effects. Alkanet and ochre provided red pigments for lips and cheeks, and kohl lined the eyes for contrast.

While we are not entirely certain of the methods used to produce some of these cosmetics, we do have a passage from the Roman author Pliny that details the production process of white lead cakes (see Fig. 12.4) and a similar process was likely employed in ancient Greece (Plin. Nat. 34.54). In this same passage, Pliny explicitly describes white lead as a poison, which suggests that those who used it extensively must have been aware of and experienced some of the toxic effects, even if they did not fully understand the dangers. Symptoms such as skin irritation, headaches, or other signs of lead poisoning may have been common among women who regularly applied it in pursuit of the ideal pale complexion. 

Say Aloe to a Fun Fact!

The use of aloe vera in ancient cosmetic routines and medical practices is particularly interesting given its healing and beautifying properties. Native to the Arabian Peninsula and the island of Socotra in the Indian Ocean, aloe was valued for its soothing and moisturizing effects. According to later sources from the Islamic Golden Age, Alexander the Great, following the advice of Aristotle, is said to have captured Socotra in the 4th century BCE in order to access its natural resources, including aloe, for treating the wounds of his soldiers. While the evidence is limited, the use of aloe appears to have gradually entered Greek practices. Over time, aloe became part of the beauty routines of Greek women, applying it to hydrate their skin and preserve the desired youthful appearance, keeping with the beauty ideals that emphasized a well-maintained complexion.

Who Used Cosmetics?

Despite the complex social perceptions on the use of cosmetics, archaeological evidence supports that cosmetics were widely used to enhance appearance, signify status, and reinforce social identity. Women from various backgrounds applied makeup to achieve the idealized appearance and accentuate their features.

Hetairai (paid sexual companions) were recognized for their bold makeup, using dark kohl, vibrant rouge, and white lead to create striking contrasts. Their beauty played a central role in their influence over elite men. As their profession depended on their appearance, as stressed in the inscription on the vessel in Fig. 12.3, cosmetics became a tool of power. A fragment from Athenaeus, citing Eubulus, provides a vivid description of how cosmetics were applied, though it is evident that he is highly critical of the practice (Ath. 13.6).

In contrast, the kanephoros (basket-bearer), a young girl chosen to lead a ritual procession, likely used makeup in a more subtle way. As a public symbol of purity and virtue, the kanephoros was expected to present herself in a refined and polished manner. Aristophanes’ Assemblywomen references a young woman’s well-powdered face, hinting at the use of cosmetics to enhance beauty while maintaining a modest appearance (Aristoph. Eccl. 736-8). The role of the kanephoros also had social implications, as her appearance was effectively a visual extension of her family’s status. Daughters of metics carried parasols to shade the kanephoros during the procession, which was an accessory that signified wealth and also served to protect their skin from the sun, ultimately helping to maintain the pale complexion associated with elite women’s status. The parasol may have also served to preserve makeup and prevent smudging or running from perspiration in the heat.

Restrictions on Cosmetic Use

While cosmetics may have been applied in specific rituals, it was also restricted in others. An inscription from the cult of Demeter and Kore at Patras explicitly forbids the use of makeup within the sanctuary, with those in violation required to clean the sanctuary as atonement for impiety (SEG 40:395). Another inscription from the Adania mysteries also bans cosmetic use among other luxuries, emphasizing the need for purity and modesty in sacred environments (IG V, 1 1390). These restrictions emphasize that while cosmetics could function to signify social status, they could also be viewed as inappropriate in contexts that called for modesty and simplicity.

Beyond religious contexts, cosmetics may also have been restricted on other occasions. In Lysias’ Against Eratosthenes, Euphiletos grows suspicious of his wife, who has applied makeup shortly after the death of her brother (Lys. 1.14-7). Euphiletos interprets her use of cosmetics as a sign of dishonesty, linking it to the possibility of an affair. However, this passage also makes evident another important social expectation – modesty in mourning. By applying makeup so soon after her brother’s death, Euphiletos’ wife violated an unspoken norm that discouraged indulgence in luxury during mourning periods. It is generally known that women were expected to mourn in a more open manner than men, suggesting that cosmetics in this instance were viewed as immodest.

Men Can Glam Too!

While cosmetics were primarily associated with women, men also used them, though this often carried negative connotations. Greek ideals of masculinity. emphasized strength and austerity, making cosmetic use seem effeminate or deceptive. Yet evidence, like Aristophanes’ Assemblywomen, which mocks indoor tradesmen like shoemakers, suggests some men used cosmetics to achieve a tanned complexion (Aristoph. Eccl. 384-5). This ridicule reflects broader societal anxieties related to traditional masculinity.

A tanned complexion was a natural result of a man’s lifestyle, typically involving outdoor labour or military training that reinforced his masculinity. Men who spent much of their time indoors, like the shoemaker, were ridiculed for their paleness, as it suggested a lack of physical strength and discipline, which was characterized as effeminate and weak. The use of cosmetics to appear tan was thus seen as an inversion of natural gender roles, and ultimately, a form of deception.

         Xenophon’s Cyropaedia also criticizes Persian men for their use of makeup, associating it with a decline in martial strength (Xen. Cyr. 8.8.20). However, archaeological evidence from the Kerameikos cemetery in Athens complicates this view. The grave of the 4th century BCE actor Makareus contained several cosmetic items, including pyxides, lekanides, a bronze mirror, and perfume. These items are largely associated with women’s burials, making this a peculiar case. This suggests that cosmetics played a role in certain male professions, such as theatre, where actors like Makareus may have used makeup to paint their masks or their skin, particularly when portraying female characters. The presence of these objects in a male’s burial challenges rigid ideas of gender and cosmetics, showing that makeup was sometimes socially acceptable or even necessary in some professional contexts.

 

Setting the Final Look

Cosmetics in ancient Greece were deeply connected to ideals of beauty, morality, and social identity. While they allowed women, especially courtesans, to wield a certain degree of power, they were also policed through social and religious restrictions. For men, makeup use was largely viewed negatively, though found acceptance in specific contexts like the theatre. The tension between natural and artificial beauty, as well as between acceptance and condemnation, reveals how cosmetics functioned as tools of enhancement as well as a means to both reinforce and subvert societal norms. By examining literary, archaeological, and epigraphic evidence, we gain a deeper understanding of the complicated nature of beauty in antiquity.