2 Chapter 2: Literature Review
Learning objects (LOs) are not a new educational resource, having been around for many years. However, the possibilities and potential affordances of digital learning objects (DLOs) have gained increasing attention (Falloon, 2015). One of the main draws of using DLOs is for learners to interactively construct their learning (Alvarenga et al., 2017; Hart & Passmore, 2010; Mcleod & Carabott, 2017). Teachers have also reported motivational benefits and increased engagement for students when observing their use of DLOs (Falloon, 2015; Hart & Passmore, 2010; Mcleod & Carabott, 2017). Two notable studies, discussed in more detail below, indicate that after educators-in-training engaged in learning experiences facilitated by DLOs, they were more likely to commit to and apply theoretical learning in their practice (Hart & Passmore, 2010; Mcleod & Carabott, 2017).
A qualitative study from Hart & Passmore (2010) focused on pre-service teacher experiences using DLOs to enhance their ability to ask questions that prompted higher order thinking skills. The researchers created a reusable DLO called the Bloom Tool Learning Object to facilitate deep theoretical understanding and translate that knowledge into practice (Hart & Passmore, 2010). Reflections and observations from the pre-service teachers showed increased engagement and overall more effective questioning in their work with learners. By integrating the DLO as part of the practicum experience, pre-service teachers could more readily apply their new learning into their practice. The interactivity of the DLO supported the pre-service teachers to actively engage in building and then applying their learning, as comprehension and application of new learning “greatly improves when [learners] are involved in constructing their own understanding” (Hart & Passmore, 2010, p. 70). The participants and researchers observed that the experience of utilizing the DLOs – when they are incorporated effectively into teaching and learning practices – hold promise for bridging gaps between theory and practice (Hart & Passmore, 2010). In the case of one pre-service teacher, using the DLO was what allowed them to “see the value” in the topics covered, as opposed to their experiences in the classroom (Hart & Passmore, 2010, p. 74)
A second study from Mcleod & Carabott (2017) consisted of two groups of pre-service teachers – both had information and communication technology embedded as content tools, but with those in one group assigned to each create a DLO as part of showing their learning. Qualitative data was collected through focus groups and written reflective questions. The responses indicated that being able to “play” with digital technologies helped the participants to be able to understand what they did and did not like about the DLOs, programs, and platforms they used (Mcleod & Carabott, 2017). Following the experience, the pre-service teacher participants also had a greater commitment to using technology in their professional practice, as their feelings of confidence in their digital competency increased. This increased confidence and ability is posited to translate into higher levels of digital literacy and competence for the future students of the pre-service teachers (Mcleod & Carabott, 2017). Overall, the findings indicate that when learners have to create digital learning objects, they gain a deeper understanding of technologies and pedagogy, as well as the DLOs’ content.
2.1 Constructing Learning
Learners being involved in constructing their own understanding is a long-standing foundational part of learning and the field of early childhood education (Shipley, 2013). Constructing learning and understanding through the use of digital learning objects ties back to seminal research into constructivism (Hart & Passmore, 2010; Mcleod & Carabott, 2017), which is a theory built on the belief that learners do not passively consume information but actively construct knowledge (Piaget, 1968; Shipley, 2013). In particular, Piaget’s cognitive constructivism–a cognition-specific theory building on Dewey’s work on constructivism–is foundational to the understanding of how learners come to comprehend new concepts through actively engaging with learning resources and making meaning out of their experiences (Piaget, 1968; Shipley, 2013). Designing using principles of constructivism means creating learning experiences that give learners the opportunity to explore concepts and actively interact with things in the learning environment (Mcleod & Carabott, 2017; Shipley, 2013).
When learners are actively involved in constructing their understanding of concepts, comprehension and application of that new learning significantly improve (Hart & Passmore, 2010). DLOs scaffold learning in a way that those who use them construct their knowledge at their own pace (Falloon et al., 2009), and even those with differing learning needs can benefit from using DLOs (Alvarenga et al., 2017). For example, the interactive process of learning by using DLOs can help with reviewing new and familiar subjects, supporting reflection, and receiving instant feedback throughout the learning process (Alvarenga et al., 2017) as well as clearing up doubts or confusion (Dumitrica & Jarmula, 2022). Being self-paced, DLOs increase self-regulation (as it relates to engagement, focus, and self-discipline in the learning process) and motivation as learners actively participate in the construction of their knowledge (Alvarenga et al., 2017; Dumitrica & Jarmula, 2022; Falloon, 2015; Falloon et al., 2009; Hart & Passmore, 2010), as well as many more vital skills for novice ECEs.
2.2 Affordances of DLOs
Digital learning objects offer a variety of affordances simply by nature of being DLOs; they’re typically scalable, flexible, interactive, reusable, easy to access, adaptable, and cost-effective (Falloon, 2015). Research tells us that the use of DLOs have enormous potential to support the development of essential skills for diverse learners by actively engaging them in building their knowledge (Alvarenga et al., 2017; Falloon, 2015; Hart & Passmore, 2010). In addition to their engaging and more interactive design (Falloon, 2015), learners also construct better reflective practices, deeper understanding, and higher awareness of the value of topics covered in DLOs (Hart & Passmore, 2010; Mcleod & Carabott, 2017). One study from Kay (2012) found that general student performance saw a significant increase when learning objects were utilized alongside effective teaching and learning strategies, such as scaffolding.
However, Falloon (2015) warns that DLOs used solely to deliver information (i.e. non-interactive or without effective teaching and learning strategies) can limit reflection and exploration, as well as encourage the belief that there is a single truth or answer. Intentionally including DLOs in strategies for teaching and learning is important for the development of vital skills, as the benefits of DLOs are shaped by the strategies teachers use (Falloon et al., 2015; Mcleod & Carabott, 2017). When used effectively, DLOs enable learners to engage in a more hands-on fashion with increasingly complex ideas and concepts (Falloon et al., 2009) such as analysis, problem-solving, critical thinking, reflection, decision-making, and other higher-order thinking skills (Falloon et al., 2009; Hart & Passmore, 2010; Mcleod & Carabott, 2017).
2.3 A Brief Word About Design
A theoretical framework is often employed as a guide or foundation to support the effective use and creation of digital technologies. For digital learning resources, two key frameworks and guidelines stand out: universal design for learning (UDL) and principles of multimedia design. First, UDL is a research-based framework that uses insights into how people learn to “improve and optimize teaching and learning for all people” (CAST, 2024, para. 1). The framework includes recommendations and insights into how best to support the why, what, and how of the learning process through providing learners with multiple means of engagement, representation, and action and expression (CAST, 2024). Second, the principles of multimedia design used here are Mayer’s (2024) fifteen Principles of Multimedia Instructional Design. The principles are based on Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning and cover instructional design principles related to reducing extraneous processing and managing essential processing for learners (Mayer, 2024). These frameworks have been used as recommendations and guidelines in the design of my DLOs, which is explored in more detail in section three.
