Systems of Oppression
“Oppression, n. – Unjust or cruel exercise of authority or power especially by the imposition of burdens; the condition of being weighed down; an act of pressing down; a sense of heaviness or obstruction in the body or mind.”
– Merriam-Webster Dictionary
Civilized Oppression
We live in a world where we have been socialized in systems that are founded on privilege, power, and hierarchies. We participate in these systems without realizing the full effect of its impact. To move forward and create meaningful change, it requires a fundamental understanding of oppression and deep reflection to understand our role in perpetuating inequities. We must interrogate everything we do individually and as a system to uncover the injustices it has been creating and what changes need to be made.
Oppression is the experience of repeated, systemic injustice. It need not be extreme, nor violent, nor involve the legal system. In their book “Civilized Oppression,” author Jean Harvey explains that the term civilized oppression “is embedded in unquestioned norms, habits, and symbols, in the assumptions underlying institutions and rules, and the collective consequences of following those rules. It refers to the vast and deep injustices some groups suffer as a consequence of often unconscious assumptions and reactions of well-meaning people in ordinary interactions which are supported by the media and cultural stereotypes as well as by the structural features of bureaucratic hierarchies and market mechanisms.”
There are two key and necessary components of oppression – Power and Privilege (Mills, 2001).
Ontario Human Rights Commission defines power as “access to privileges such as information/knowledge, connections, experience and expertise, resources and decision-making that enhance a person’s chances of getting what they need to live a comfortable, safe, productive and profitable life.” This is upheld by social institutions, cultural norms, and assumptions and thus legitimizes the existing inequality of power between groups and gives some people privileges that others do not have. Privilege is unearned power that is only easily or readily available to some people simply as a result of their social group membership (Ontario Human Rights Commission). Privilege is enjoyed by a dominant group, even if they are unaware and regardless of their intentions, giving them economic, political, and social advantages at the expense of members of marginalized groups.
Philosopher and feminist theorist Marilyn Frye outlines how oppression begins:
- there must be restrictions, barriers, or limitations on the person’s freedoms
- the restrictions, barriers, and limitations must be harmful
- the restrictions, barriers, and limitations must be imposed, protected, and justified by a social structure or institution
- the restrictions, barriers, and limitations must be suffered by people simply because of their social group membership
- there must be a separate social group that maintains the status quo of oppression and who benefits from the imposed restrictions, barriers, and limitations.
The challenge with systems of oppression is that they are entrenched in legal, educational, economic, political and cultural institutions. People may hold certain stereotypes and prejudices that causes them to behave in a discriminatory manner against some groups of people, however these actions are not oppression unless they are also members of the dominant group that holds power and privilege (David & Derthick, 2017). Additionally, disliking or favouring someone based on their social group membership is not automatically oppression; it must be backed up, legitimized, protected, and supported by social institutions and —power and privilege.
It is also important to note that oppression is not always consciously inflicted by ill-intentioned, powerful, and privileged people. In many cases, even well-intentioned people uphold policies and institutions that inadvertently and unknowingly end up dehumanizing other people, limiting other people’s access to resources, and constraining other people’s freedoms (David & Derthick, 2017). Because oppression may be subtle and unnoticed, oppressive rules and standards can become widely accepted and largely unquestioned, leading to the creation and maintenance of oppressive organizations and institutions.
WatchLegos and the 4 I’s of Oppression
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The 4 I’s Framework
The 4 I’s framework highlights how oppression shows up in overlapping ways and any efforts to dismantle oppression must address all four of these levels: internally as individuals; at an interpersonal level socially; addressing how it is reinforced through institutional oppression; and the root of the ideologies that allows oppression to continue over time (Training Resources for the Environmental Community, 2021).
Ideological Oppression
This refers to the central premise that one group is better than another. Qualities such as intelligence, superiority, and nobility are assigned to the dominant group, whereas the opposite qualities are attributed to the oppressed group.
Institutional Oppression
This idea of superiority becomes embedded in the institutions of the society with institutional oppression. Judicial, education, healthcare, financial systems are a few examples that contribute to perpetuating oppression.
Interpersonal Oppression
Both the ideology that one group is better than another and the institutions that provide that pathway for oppression to happen, gives permission for individuals of the dominant group to disrespect or mistreat individuals in the oppressed group. This shows up as racism, sexism, homophobia etc. where the negative messages have been internalized and adopted as truth. The dominant group has its mistreatment of the target group embedded in and supported by society’s institutions.
Internalized Oppression
This shows up as oppressed people internalizing the ideology of inferiority and believing, at some level, the truth in the negative message. This is often manifested as powerlessness or despair. In the dominant group this shows up as Internalized Privilege and the inherent superiority or normalcy of one’s own privileged group.
The Four “I’s framework demonstrates how oppression is fundamentally embedded across all our systems, and that none of these four aspects of oppression can exist separately. It is crucial that we see any oppression as a system.
The Five Faces of Oppression
The Five Faces of Oppression is a model by political theorist Iris Young that describes oppression as being structural, “because of the everyday practices of a well-intentioned liberal society.”
Oppression, according to Young, is not the result of the choices or policies installed by a few people in power, but rather due to the “unquestioned norms, habits, and symbols, in the assumptions underlying institutional rules and the collective consequences of following those rules.”
Whereas the 4 I’s Framework identifies the scale at which oppression operates (among individuals, embedded in institutions, and permeating cultures), the Five Faces model describes how it operates:
- Exploitation is the systematic transfer of resources (such as land, wealth, or labor value) from one group to benefit another (Young, 2009).
- Marginalization is the prevention or limitation of full participation in society through exclusion. This might be preventing a group from full access to the financial system, health care, public benefits, or community activities. The result is material deprivation and prevention of the oppressed group from demonstrating capacities in a socially defined way which reinforces the ideological belief that the oppressed group is lacking (Young, 2009).
- Powerlessness is a deprivation of the ability to make decisions about one’s living or working conditions (Young, 2009).
- Cultural imperialism is the valuing and enforcement of the dominant group’s culture, norms, and characteristics. It allows the dominant group to interpret major events, including “other” groups within society (Rebolledo, 2023).
- Violence includes physical, sexual, and emotional violence, and the threat of violence, as well as policies and structures that condone violence. It is directed violence toward an oppressed group simply due to group membership (Rebolledo, 2023).
Any group can experience more than one form of oppression, in various combinations, but the presence of just one of the above five conditions is sufficient to deem a group as oppressed. Young does not attach a hierarchy to the faces of oppression, there is not a more important or more essential form of oppression and thus, no demand for justice is any more or less urgent in a society (Rebolledo, 2023).
Journal Prompt
Considering the above questions will highlight how intersectionality comes into play. Now consider:
- Who tends to perpetrate this?
- Under what circumstances?
- In what ways do the perpetrators have power over those targeted?
- Who has power over the perpetrators?
- What policies, structures, or norms condone or support the prevalence of _____________?
- Who benefits?
Systems of Oppression
The following digs deeper into just a few systems of oppression and is meant to be a springboard for further learning.
Colonialism
Colonialism has been defined as a system that aims to displace one population with another. It is a physical, political and intellectual occupation. Settler-Colonialism is founded on a system of power that oppresses Indigenous Peoples rights, erases cultures and controls the historical and present day narrative (Legal Information Institute). It continues to exist as long as settlers are living on appropriated land.
Erasure plays a significant role in Settler-Colonialism by removing Indigenous historical narratives, changing the names on maps and criminalizing cultural expressions. This serves to ensure the settler culture becomes the norm. In many cases, Eurocentric knowledge and practices are deemed neutral and universal (Legal Information Institute).
Key characteristics:
- Language and culture is erased
- Discovery of knowledge by European settlers is the only form of valid knowledge (“Colonialism, Coloniality and Settler Colonialism”, York U)
- “Natural order” is established through land ownership (“Colonialism, Coloniality and Settler Colonialism”, York U)
- Fragmentation and separation – by separating ourselves from others, we establish ways to dehumanize, exert power, and more
“By perceiving ourselves as distinct entities from one another, as well as from the realms of the living and non-living, and the timelines of the past and future, we establish the circumstances that foster dehumanization, conquest, imposition, exertion of power, violence, environmental degradation, genocide, and slavery.”
– “Colonialism, Coloniality and Settler Colonialism,” York U
WatchBreaking the Cycle: Ableism and the phenomenon of lowered expectations
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Ableism
Ableism is the privileging of ability, the entrenched social view that ability equates to normal (Salem State University). Disability is viewed as diminished or being less than. Infrastructure and social structures are designed with the “norm” in mind, and mechanisms that increase accessibility are added as an afterthought, if at all.
Disability justice activist, Mia Mingus, talks about ableism in terms of whose bodies are considered valuable, desirable and disposable. This is embraced by the medical model of disability that views the person’s body as a problem that can be solved or requires medical intervention (Buder & Perry, 2023). The social model of disability says that individual limitations and capacities are not the cause of disability, rather it is the structure of the environment. If appropriate services and access were taken into account in society then then a person with a disability would no longer be disadvantaged (Buder & Perry, 2023).
Characteristics of Ableism (adapted from”Ableism,” York U):
- Anything beyond a “normal” body requires rehabilitation, intervention, and pity
- Disabled people are often seen as a burden, with little opportunity for civic contribution
- We live in a world where those who are self-reliant are deemed more worthy. While everyone relies on support from others, certain kinds of support for certain kinds of activities are devalued
- Those deemed “outside the norm” must be separated and excluded, which shows up in schools, psychiatric institutions, group homes and long-term care institutions
Sexism
Sexism is prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination on the basis of someone’s sex or gender expression. Sexism is usually expressed against women, and is seen in everything from the pay gap to microaggressions in the workplace.
Sexism is present, from an institutionalized perspective, in lack of access to reproductive rights, decreased economic security (pay gap) and a lack of legal protections for sexual assault as just a few examples. Culturally this appears in domestic portrayals of women, media representation about inferiority of strength and messages that reinforce caretaker stereotypes. This also manifests at an individual level when you look at promotion rates and lack of women CEO’s, or how teachers differentially treat genders in STEM classes (Lewis, Tobacco & Mar, 2022).
Racism
Racism is prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination on the basis of someone’s race or cultural identity. Racism is often thought of in terms of overt racial slurs or hate, but it is embedded both structurally and systematically within our society (Braceman et al., 2022).
On an interpersonal level there are many negative attitudes and stereotypes toward racial minorities ingrained in our culture, which can hold people in these oppressed groups back from opportunities and resources that are more easily accessible to those in the majority. However, if we look at the system as a whole, there are many structures that allow racism to operate at a systemic level, operating through complex processes in the political, education, economic, judicial and healthcare systems. Take environmental racism as an example. There are multiple examples where segregation either through laws or access to resources, situates BIPOC communities in close proximity to coal plants, waste dumping grounds, lack of clean water and more. This is further reinforced by legal institutions’ failure to acknowledge the problem or take meaningful action (Braceman et al., 2022).
A common term that is also mixed in with racism is discrimination, which refers to the differential treatment of groups based on ethnicity or nationality. It is the behavioural manifestation of prejudice and involves negative treatment of the oppressed group. (“Racism, bias and discrimination,” APA) Prejudice is the negative attitude toward a group (or person) formed in advance of direct experience or interaction.
It is important to note that colonialism and racism mutually reinforce each other, where European settlers positioned themselves as superior to Indigenous Peoples on the basis of skin colour.
Classism
Classism is prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination on the basis of someone’s wealth or social standing. In this system of oppression, differential value is assigned to people according to their socioeconomic class. The economic system supports this resource inequity and certain groups will have their needs unmet (“Classism,” Stanford University).
Classism often comes about when the wealthier members of a society consolidate their resources and influence to exercise power over the less wealthy. This can make it more difficult for those of a lower class to access resources and opportunities that would allow them to improve their position.
Heteronormativity
Heteronormativity is based on the ideology that heterosexuality is the normal sexual orientation and aligns with the gender binary of male or female. In a heteronormative society people assume that everyone is straight and cisgender (conforming to the gender they were assigned at birth).
Consider dress codes in the workplace and what the definition of business casual is for men and women. Or the prevalence of harassment and bullying, especially among school aged children for openly 2SLGBTQIA+ individuals (Watson & Miller, 2012).
Reflected at an ideological level, an institutional level, and interpersonal level, there is a predominance of binaries and dichotomies that defines masculinity and femininity in limiting ways. This classification reinforces the idea of static identities and denies fluidity and complexity (“Cis-Heteropatriarchy,” York U). It denies or restricts access to healthcare for trans-individuals, impacts economic mobility with fewer job opportunities and compromises individual safety in certain social situations. Furthermore, heteronormativity privileges straight and often male interests and narratives, working in tandem with sexism to lead to phenomena such as the ‘boys’ club’ where members are rewarded for their work, even if their work is mediocre or trivial in nature (“Cis-Heteropatriarchy,” York U).
How do systems of oppression impact the outdoors?
- Consider the narrative of National Parks and public lands in Canada that has erased Indigenous land-ownership and history from its narrative.
- Think about who has easy access to outdoor and natural spaces? Racialized economic policies, employment discrimination, unequal access to quality education, and other fundamental tools that can build a person’s economic standing have historically been denied to BIPOC and equity-seeking communities; which makes many outdoor ventures expensive and inaccessible.
- Children summer camps are a favourite pastime for young families, yet sleeping and washroom arrangements do not encompass the breadth of gender identity
- Technical outdoor gear is not body inclusive in it’s sizing and accessing gear that supports individuals with diverse and dis-abilities requires customization, if it is available at all.
- If we examine media representation, role models in the outdoor field and who holds power over repositories of knowledge it becomes clearer that the outdoors is not free and open to everyone.
Activity
Matrix of Oppression
With a pen and paper, recreate the table below and fill it in as best you can.
Please note that while there may be similar answers for different people, how you answer this will also be based on your lived experience. This is a reflection exercise.
The last column is for you to reflect how this shows up in the outdoor sector. What are the barriers to participation? Does this show up as interpersonal, internalized, ideological or institutional (4 “I”s Framework)?
Social Identity Categories |
Privileged Social Group |
Targeted or Oppressed Social Group |
“Ism” or System of Oppression |
How does this show up in the outdoor sector? |
Which of the 4 “I”s is at play (or combination) |
Race |
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Gender |
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Sexual Orientation |
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Class |
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Ability |
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Religion |
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Age |
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Other? |
Anti-Oppressive Practices
An anti-oppressive practice is an approach to understanding how systems of oppression such as colonialism, racism, homophobia can result in structural/systemic inequalities for certain groups in society. It focuses on the larger system that creates power imbalances (Centre for Innovation in Campus Mental Health). It addresses the ideology behind the beliefs, the individual actions that are manifested as a result of such ideologies and the systems and structures that reinforce the ideologies over time.
Some key questions within this approach to get started:
Who are the people affected by the current inequity being discussed and are they at the table?
What are the specific inequities we are seeking to eliminate?
How do we understand the forces behind the inequity we see?
What forces are perpetuating the disparities we seek to address?
What barriers are in the way of achieving an equitable outcome?
What are the population and geographic targets for our effort?
Who has power here? What is the power based on?
How are relationships and power differentials affecting the truth that is told?
How is internalized oppression playing out?
How safe is it here for different people to share their truth?
How can I build the alliances necessary here to move forward?
References
American Psychological Association. (n.d) Racism, bias and discrimination. https://www.apa.org/topics/racism-bias-discrimination
Braceman, P. et al. (2022, February) Systemic and Structural Racism: Definitions, Examples, Health Damages and Approaches to Dismantling. Health Affairs 41 (2) https://www.healthaffairs.org/doi/10.1377/hlthaff.2021.01394
Buder, S. Perry, R. ( 2023, April 12). The Social Model of Disability Explained. Social Creatures. https://www.thesocialcreatures.org/thecreaturetimes/the-social-model-of-disability
Centre for Innovation in campus Mental Health. (n.d) What is Anti-Oppressive Practice? https://campusmentalhealth.ca/toolkits/anti-oppressive-practice/what-is-anti-oppressive-practice/
Legal Information Institute. (n.d) Settler Colonialism https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/settler_colonialism
Lewis, J. Tobacco Mar, R. (2022, June) Sexism. https://www.bu.edu/antiracism-center/files/2022/06/Sexism.pdf
Mingus, M. (2011, February 12) Changing the Framework: Disability Justice. https://leavingevidence.wordpress.com/2011/02/12/changing-the-framework-disability-justice/
Rebolledo, M. (2023, April 24) Iris Marion Young’s Five Faces of Oppression. Critical Legal Thinking. https://criticallegalthinking.com/2023/04/24/iris-marion-youngs-five-faces-of-oppression/
Salem State University. (n.d) Anti-Ableism. https://libguides.salemstate.edu/anti-oppression/anti-ableism
Stanford University. (n.d) Classism. https://studentaffairs.stanford.edu/stanford-against-hate/classism#:~:text=Classism%20(or%20class%20discrimination)%3A,human%20needs%20to%20go%20unmet.
Training Resources for the Environmental Community. (2021, August 6) The 4 I’s of Oppression. https://www.trec.org/resources/the-four-is-of-oppression/
Watson, S. Miller, T. (2012) LGBT Oppression. Multicultural Education. Summer https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1014937.pdf
York U. (n.d) Ableism. https://www.yorku.ca/edu/unleading/ableism/
York U. (n.d) Cis-Heteropatriarchy. https://www.yorku.ca/edu/unleading/systems-of-oppression/cis-heteropatriarchy/
York U. (n.d) Colonialism, Coloniality and Settler Colonialism. https://www.yorku.ca/edu/unleading/systems-of-oppression/coloniality-and-settler-colonialism/#:~:text=Colonialism%20has%20been%20defined%20as,”%20(Assante%2C%202006).
Young, Iris Marion (2009). Five faces of oppression. https://results.org/wp-content/uploads/Chapter-Fives-Faces-of-Opression.pdf
Black, indigenous, and people of color.
