1.1 The Nature of Science

Scrolling through your social media feed or browsing the latest headlines, you’ll quickly notice how many aspects of biology are discussed daily. You might see reports of E. coli outbreaks in spinach or Salmonella contamination in chicken. Or you might read about the latest efforts to find cures for diseases like COVID-19, Alzheimer’s, and cancer. On a global scale, researchers are dedicated to protecting the planet, addressing environmental issues, and mitigating the effects of climate change. You might also see discussions about genetic engineering and CRISPR technology, revolutionizing medicine and agriculture by allowing scientists to edit genes precisely. All of these diverse efforts are related to biology.

Biology is the scientific study of life. That’s a simple definition to remember, but what does it mean? To fully understand biology, we must break the definition into several components. First, if biology is the scientific study of life, then what is science?

The Nature of Science

Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning “knowledge”) is a particular way of learning or knowing about the natural world.

The history of the past 500 years demonstrates that science is a compelling way of knowing about the world; it is mainly responsible for the technological revolutions that have occurred during this time. There are, however, areas of knowledge and human experience that science methods cannot apply. These include answering purely moral questions, aesthetic questions, or what can be generally categorized as spiritual questions. Science cannot investigate these areas because they are outside the realm of material phenomena, the phenomena of matter and energy, and cannot be observed and measured.

The scientific method is research with defined steps, including experiments and careful observation. The steps of the scientific method will be examined in detail later, but one of the most critical aspects of this method is the testing of hypotheses. A hypothesis is a suggested explanation for an event that can be tested. Hypotheses, or tentative explanations, are generally produced within the context of a scientific theory. A scientific theory is a generally accepted, thoroughly tested, and confirmed explanation for observations or phenomena. Scientific theory is the foundation of scientific knowledge. In addition, in many scientific disciplines (less so in biology), there are scientific laws, often expressed in mathematical formulas, describing how elements of nature will behave under certain conditions. There is no evolution of hypotheses through theories to laws as if they represented some increase in certainty about the world. Hypotheses are the day-to-day material that scientists work with, developed within the context of theories. Laws are concise descriptions of parts of the world that are amenable to formulaic or mathematical description.

Take a moment to test your knowledge of research terms by completing the drag-and-drop activity below.

Scientific Inquiry

One thing is common to all forms of science: the ultimate goal is “to know.” Curiosity and inquiry are the driving forces behind the development of science. Scientists seek to understand the world and its operations. Two methods of logical thinking are used: inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion. This type of reasoning is common in descriptive science. Descriptive (or discovery) science aims to observe, explore, and discover. A life scientist, such as a biologist, records observations. These data can be qualitative (descriptive) or quantitative (consisting of numbers), and the raw data can be supplemented with drawings, pictures, photos, or videos. The scientist can infer conclusions (inductions) based on evidence from many observations. Inductive reasoning involves formulating generalizations inferred from careful observation and analyzing a large amount of data. Brain studies often work this way. Many brains are observed while people are doing a task. The part of the brain that lights up, indicating activity, is then demonstrated to be the part controlling the response to that task.

Jane Goodall’s work with chimpanzees in Gombe Stream National Park is a classic example of descriptive science. Jane immersed herself in the chimpanzees’ natural habitat for decades and meticulously recorded their behaviours and interactions. From these observations, she could infer general conclusions about chimpanzee behaviour, social structures, and their emotional lives. One of her most groundbreaking discoveries was observing chimpanzees making and using tools. She saw a chimpanzee strip leaves off a twig and use it to fish termites out of a mound. This observation challenged the prevailing belief that only humans used tools, leading to a significant shift in our understanding of animal behaviour and cognition.

Deductive Reasoning

In deductive reasoning, the thinking pattern moves in the opposite direction compared to inductive reasoning.

Deductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses a general principle or law to forecast specific results. From those general principles, a scientist can extrapolate and predict the exact results that would be valid as long as the general principles are valid. For example, a prediction would be that if the climate is becoming warmer in a region, the distribution of plants and animals should change. Comparisons have been made between distributions in the past and the present, and the many changes that have been found are consistent with a warming climate. Finding the change in distribution proves the climate change conclusion is valid.

 

Deductive reasoning or deduction is the type of logic used in hypothesis-based science. Hypothesis-based science begins with a specific question or problem and a potential answer or solution that can be tested.

In reality,  most scientific endeavours use a combination of descriptive science and hypothesis-based science. The boundary between these two main pathways of scientific study is often blurred. Observations lead to questions, questions lead to forming a hypothesis as a possible answer to those questions, and then the hypothesis is tested. Thus, descriptive science and hypothesis-based science are in continuous dialogue.

Basic and Applied Science

The scientific community has debated the value of different types of science for the last few decades. Is it valuable to pursue science to gain knowledge, or does scientific knowledge only have worth if we can apply it to solving a specific problem or bettering our lives? This question focuses on the differences between two types of science: basic science and applied science.

Some may perceive applied science as “useful” and basic science as “useless.” A question these people might pose to a scientist advocating knowledge acquisition would be, “What for?” However, a careful look at the history of science reveals that basic knowledge has resulted in many remarkable applications of great value. Many scientists think that a basic understanding of science is necessary before an application is developed; therefore, applied science relies on the results generated through basic science. Other scientists think it is time to move on from basic science and instead find solutions to actual problems. Both approaches are valid. Some issues demand immediate attention; however, few solutions would be found without the help of the knowledge generated through basic science. Without basic science, it is unlikely that applied science would exist.

The Human Genome Project is another example of the link between basic and applied research. Initially, scientists analyzed and mapped human chromosomes to determine the DNA sequence and gene locations. The project eventually aimed to use this data for applied research, such as finding cures for genetic diseases.

While research efforts in both basic science and applied science are usually carefully planned, it is essential to note that some discoveries are made by serendipity, that is, utilizing a fortunate accident or a lucky surprise. Penicillin was discovered when biologist Alexander Fleming accidentally left a petri dish of Staphylococcus bacteria open. An unwanted mould grew, killing the bacteria. The mould turned out to be Penicillium, and a new antibiotic was discovered. Even in the highly organized world of science, luck can lead to unexpected breakthroughs when combined with an observant, curious mind.

“Introduction to Biology” from Biology for Majors I by Shelli Carter and Lumen Learning is licensed under Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

“1.2 The Process of Science” from Biology and the Citizen by Colleen Jones is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

“The Nature of Science” from Principles of Biology by Catherine Creech is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.