Chapter 9: Writing Essays
Given all the time and effort you have put into your research paper, you will want to make sure that your final draft represents your best work. This requires taking the time to revise and edit your paper carefully.
You may feel like you need a break from your paper before you edit it. That feeling is understandable, so you want to be sure to leave yourself enough time to complete this important stage of the writing process. This section presents a number of opportunities for you to focus on different aspects of the editing process; as with revising a draft, you should approach editing in different stages.
Some of the content in this section may seem repetitive, but again, it provides you with a chance to double-check any revisions you have made at a detailed level.
Editing Your Draft
If you have been incorporating each set of revisions as Mariah and Jorge have, you have produced multiple drafts of your writing. So far, all your changes have been content changes. Perhaps with the help of peer feedback, you have made sure that you sufficiently supported your ideas. You have checked for problems with unity and coherence. You have examined your essay for word choice, revising to cut unnecessary words and to replace weak wording with specific and appropriate wording.
The next step after revising the content is editing. When you edit, you examine the surface features of your text. You examine your spelling, grammar, usage, and punctuation. You also make sure you use the proper format when creating your finished assignment.
Tip: Editing takes time. Be sure to budget time into the writing process to complete additional edits after revising. Editing and proofreading your writing helps you create a finished work that represents your best efforts. Here are a few more tips to remember about your readers:
- Readers do not notice correct spelling, but they do notice misspellings.
- Readers look past your sentences to get to your ideas—unless the sentences are awkward, poorly constructed, and frustrating to read.
- Readers notice when every sentence has the same rhythm as every other sentence, with no variety.
- Readers do not cheer when you use there, their, and they’re correctly, but they notice when you do not.
- Readers will notice the care with which you handled your assignment and your attention to detail in the delivery of an error-free document.
Identifying Wordiness
Sometimes writers use too many words when fewer words will appeal more to their audience and better fit their purpose. Here are some common examples of wordiness to look for in your draft. Eliminating wordiness helps all readers, because it makes your ideas clear, direct, and straightforward.
- Sentences that begin with There is or There are
- Wordy. There are two major experiments that the Biology Department sponsors.
- Revised. The Biology Department sponsors two major experiments.
- Sentences with unnecessary modifiers
- Wordy. Two extremely famous and well-known consumer advocates spoke eloquently in favour of the proposed important legislation.
- Revised. Two well-known consumer advocates spoke in favour of the proposed legislation.
Sentences with deadwood phrases that add little to the meaning. Be judicious when you use phrases such as in terms of, with a mind to, on the subject of, as to whether or not, more or less, as far as…is concerned, and similar expressions. You can usually find a more straightforward way to state your point.
- Wordy. As a world leader in the field of green technology, the company plans to focus its efforts in the area of geothermal energy. A report as to whether or not to use geysers as an energy source is in the process of preparation.
- Revised. As a world leader in green technology, the company plans to focus on geothermal energy. Researchers are preparing a report about using geysers as an energy source.
Sentences in the passive voice or with forms of the verb to be: Sentences with passive voice verbs often create confusion because the subject of the sentence does not perform an action. Sentences are clearer when the subject performs the action and is followed by a strong verb. Use strong active voice verbs in place of forms of to be, which can lead to wordiness. Avoid passive voice when you can.
- Wordy. It might perhaps be said that using a GPS device is something that is a benefit to drivers who have a poor sense of direction.
- Revised. Using a GPS device benefits drivers who have a poor sense of direction.
Sentences with constructions that can be shortened
- Wordy. The e-book reader, which is a recent invention, may become as commonplace as the cell phone. My over-60 uncle bought an e-book reader, and his wife bought an e-book reader, too.
- Revised. The e-book reader, a recent invention, may become as commonplace as the cell phone. My over-60 uncle and his wife both bought e-book readers.
Choosing Specific, Appropriate Words
Most essays at the post-secondary level should be written in formal English suitable for an academic situation. Follow these principles to be sure that your word choice is appropriate.
- Avoid slang. Find alternatives to bummer, kewl, and rad.
- Avoid language that is overly casual. Write about “men and women” rather than “girls and guys” unless you are trying to create a specific effect. A formal tone calls for formal language.
- Avoid contractions. Use do not in place of don’t, I am in place of I’m,have not in place of haven’t, and so on. Contractions are considered casual speech.
- Avoid clichés. Overused expressions such as green with envy, face the music, better late than never, and similar expressions are empty of meaning and may not appeal to your audience.
- Be careful when you use words that sound alike but have different meanings. Some examples are allusion/illusion; complement/compliment; council/counsel; concurrent/consecutive; founder/flounder; and historic/historical. When in doubt, check a dictionary.
- Choose words with the connotations you want. Choosing a word for its connotations is as important in formal essay writing as it is in all kinds of writing. Compare the positive connotations of the word proud and the negative connotations of arrogant and conceited.
- Use specific words rather than overly general words. Find synonyms for thing, people, nice, good, bad, interesting, and other vague words. Or use specific details to make your exact meaning clear.
Now read the revisions Mariah made to make her third paragraph clearer and more concise. She has already incorporated the changes she made to improve unity and coherence.
Self-Practice Exercise 9.16
H5P: Understanding Word Choice
Answer the following questions about Mariah’s revised paragraph.
- Read the unrevised and the revised paragraphs aloud. Explain in your own words how changes in word choice have affected Mariah’s writing.
- Do you agree with the changes that Mariah made to her paragraph? Which changes would you keep and which were unnecessary? Explain. What other changes would you have made?
- What effect does removing contractions and the pronoun you have on the tone of the paragraph? How would you characterize the tone now? Why?
Now return once more to your essay in progress. Read carefully for problems with word choice. Be sure that your draft is written in formal language and that your word choice is specific and appropriate.
Editing Your Writing Checklist
Reread your paper and use the list below to check your grammar.
- Does every verb agree with its subject?
- Is the antecedent of every pronoun clear?
- Is it clear which word a participial phrase modifies (eg. no dangling modifier)?
- Have you ensured there are no run-on sentences?
- Are subject, object, and possessive personal pronouns used correctly?
- Do all personal pronouns agree with their antecedents?
- Are all sentences complete sentences (eg. not fragments)?
- Are independent clauses joined with conjunctions?
- Are tense forms, especially for irregular verbs, written correctly?
- Are the correct comparative and superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs used?
- Are who and whom used correctly?
- Is every verb in the correct tense?
Reread your paper and use the list below to check your sentence structure.
- Is my parallel structure accurate?
- Have I chosen the best coordinating or subordinating conjunctions to join clauses?
- Are my sentences clear?
- Do I vary my sentence structure?
Reread your paper and use the list below to check your sentence structure.
- Have I used apostrophes correctly to write all singular and plural possessive forms?
- Have I used quotation marks correctly?
- Does every sentence end with the correct end punctuation?
- Can I justify the use of every exclamation point?
Reread your paper and use the list below to check your mechanics and usage.
- Have I corrected any spelling errors?
- Have I used capital letters where they are needed?
- Have I written abbreviations, where allowed, correctly?
- Have I corrected any errors in the use of commonly confused words, such as to/too/two?
Tip: Be careful about relying too much on spelling checkers and grammar checkers. A spelling checker cannot recognize that you meant to write principle but wrote principal instead. A grammar checker often queries constructions that are perfectly correct. The program does not understand your meaning; it makes its check against a general set of formulas that might not apply in each instance. If you use a grammar checker, accept the suggestions that make sense, but consider why the suggestions came up.
Tip: Proofreading requires patience; it is very easy to read past a mistake. Set your paper aside for at least a few hours, if not a day or more, so your mind will rest. Some professional proofreaders read a text backward so they can concentrate on spelling and punctuation. Another helpful technique is to slowly read a paper aloud, paying attention to every word, letter, and punctuation mark.
If you need additional proofreading help, ask a reliable friend, classmate, or peer tutor to make a final pass on your paper to look for anything you missed.
Formatting
Your finished assignment should be properly formatted, following the style required of you. Formatting includes the style of the title, margin size, page number placement, location of the writer’s name, and other factors. Your instructor or department may require a specific style to be used. The requirements may be more detailed and rigid for research projects and term papers, which often observe the American Psychological Association (APA) style guide, especially when citations of sources are included.
To ensure the format is correct and follows any specific instructions, make a final check before you submit an assignment.
Checking Citations and Formatting
When editing a research paper, it is also important to check that you have cited sources properly and formatted your document according to the specified guidelines. There are two reasons for this. First, citing sources correctly ensures that you give proper credit to other people for ideas and information that helped you in your work. Second, using correct formatting establishes your paper as one student’s contribution to the work developed by and for a larger academic community. Increasingly, American Psychological Association (APA) style guidelines are the standard for many academic fields.
Citation and Formatting Checklist
Reread your paper and check whether you have achieved the following goals in working towards proper citation and formatting.
- Each in-text citation includes the source author’s name (or, where applicable, the organization name or source title) and year of publication. I have used the correct format of in text and parenthetical citations.
- Within the body of my paper, each fact or idea taken from a source is credited to the correct source.
- My paper includes a running head.
- Each source cited in the body of my paper has a corresponding entry in the references section of my paper.
- My references section includes a heading and double-spaced alphabetized entries.
- Each entry in my references section is indented on the second line and all subsequent lines.
- The margins of my paper are set at one inch. Text is double spaced and set in a standard 12-point font.
- My paper includes a title page.
- Each entry in my references section includes all the necessary information for that source type, in the correct sequence and format.
Final Revision Checklist
Although you probably do not want to look at your paper again before you submit it to your instructor, take the time to do a final check. Since you have already worked through all of the checklists above focusing on certain aspects at one time, working through one final checklist should confirm you have written a strong, persuasive essay and that everything is the way you want it to be. Then you can compare to see how your perceptions of your paper match those of someone else, essentially having that person act as the one who will be grading your paper.
Reread your paper and use the list below to check your organization.
- Are your paragraphs organized in a logical manner?
- Focus: Have you clearly stated your thesis (your controlling idea) in the first paragraph?
- Check whether your paragraphs are organized according to a specific pattern.
- Unity: Write your opening and closing paragraphs and place each topic sentence in between. You should have a “mini essay”
- with several different main points supporting your thesis.
- Have you provided a comprehensive conclusion to your essay? Does it summarize your main points (using different words)?
- Do you show you understand the assignment: purpose, audience, and genre?
- Does your thesis statement catch the reader’s attention?
- Does each topic sentence (per paragraph) logically follow the one preceding it?
- Do you have several points to support your thesis?
- Are your paragraphs organized in the best way to support your thesis?
Reread your paper and use the list below to check your paragraphs and sentences.
- Does each sentence logically follow the preceding one?
- Are there several sentences giving details, facts, quotes, reasons, and arguments in each paragraph?
- Is each supporting detail specific, concrete, and relevant to the topic sentence?
- Have you used transitional words to help the reader follow your thoughts?
- Does each paragraph have only one main point?
- Does your essay have an appropriate tone and point of view?
- Does each paragraph have main points and supporting details?
- Is each sentence is relevant to the main point of the paragraph?
- Is your approach or pattern used to develop your paragraph’s main point followed?
- Are your paragraphs all an appropriate length?
Reread your paper and use the list below to check your sentences and usage.
- Verb tenses are consistent.
- Weak adverbs (may be) are replaced with strong verbs (is).
- Pronoun referents are clear.
- Wordiness has been eliminated.
- Subject and verbs agree.
- Subjects are person are consistent.
- Sentence structure is varied.
- Repetition has been eliminated.
- Fragments, splices, and run-on sentences have been revised.
- Each sentence has a subject and a verb.
- Lists are written in parallel.
- Wordiness has been corrected.
- All verbs are active.
- Modifiers have been checked for clarity.
Reread your paper and use the list below to check your documentation.
- Reference section is complete.
- All references are documented.
- In-text citations are formatted correctly.
- In-text citations are present for every reference.
Reread your paper and use the list below to check your mechanics.
- All spelling and typographical errors have been corrected.
- All words and sentences are punctuated according to common usage.
Reread your paper and use the list below to check your content.
- I have provided enough background information. The details I have provided are relevant and necessary.
- I believe what I have written.
- My controlling idea and the development of my argument make sense.
- I have primarily used paraphrasing (not direct quotation).
You should now be confident you have produced a strong argument that is wonderfully constructed and that you will be able to persuade your audience that your points and point of view are valid.