Leadership and Management in Learning Organizations

Carson Babich and Clayton Smith

Leadership and Management in Learning Organizations Copyright © by Carson Babich and Clayton Smith. All Rights Reserved.

Contents

- Cover

- LEADERSHIP and MANAGEMENT

- in

- LEARNING ORGANIZATIONS

- Introduction

- Authors

- Part I. Chapter 1: Introduction to Leadership and Management in a Learning Organization

- 1.1 What is Leadership and Management?

- 1.2 What is a Learning Organization?

- 1.3 Self-Awareness in Leadership and Management

- 1.4 What do Others Think Leadership and Management is?

- 1.5 Use of Metaphors to Understand Organizational Complexity

- Conclusion

- References

- Part II. Chapter 2: Management Theories and Practice

- 2.1 Classical Management Theories

- 2.2 Functions of Management in Organizations

- 2.3 Contemporary Management Theories

- Conclusion

- References

- Part III. Chapter 3: Leadership Styles, Roles and Traits

- 3.1 Leadership Styles

- 3.2 Roles of a Leader

- 3.3 Behavioural Traits of a Leader

- 3.4 Power and Leadership

- Conclusion

- References

- Part IV. Chapter 4: Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management

- 4.1 Entrepreneurship

- 4.2 The Risks and Rewards of Entrepreneurship

- 4.3 Small Business and Entrepreneurship: Similarities and Differences

- 4.4 Social Entrepreneurship

- Conclusion

- References

- Part V. Chapter 5: Ethics, Social Responsibility, and Sustainability

- 5.1 What is Ethics?

- 5.2 What is Business Ethics?

- 5.3 Corporate Social Responsibility

- 5.4 Modern Corporate Social Responsibility

- 5.5 Sustainability in Global Organizations

- Conclusion

- References

- Part VI. Chapter 6: Learning Principles

- 6.1 The Learning Cycle

- 6.2 Epistemology and Basic Methodology

- 6.3 Theories of Learning within Organizations

- 6.4 The 3 C’s

- Conclusion

- References

- Part VII. Chapter 7: Motivation and Job Design

- 7.1 Job Design

- 7.2 Job Design Characteristics

- 7.3 External Organization Environment

- 7.4 Corporate Culture

- Conclusion

- References

- Part VIII. Chapter 8: Decision-Making

- 8.1 Overview of Decision-Making

- 8.2 Decision-Making Styles

- 8.3 Challenges to Effective Decision Making

- 8.4 Group Decision Making

- Conclusion

- References

- Part IX. Chapter 9: Teams, Teamwork, and Collaboration

- 9.1 Teamwork and Collaboration

- 9.2 Using Experiential Education to Foster Teamwork and Collaboration

- 9.3 Online Collaborative Learning

- 9.4 Common Features in Organizations

- 9.5 Teamwork in the Workplace

- Conclusion

- References

- Part X. Chapter 10: Communication

- 10.1 The Communication Process

- 10.2 Organizational Communication

- 10.3 Opening Channels of Communication: Elton Mayo and the Hawthorne Study

- 10.4 Communicative Media and Technology in Education

- Conclusion

- References

- Part XI. Chapter 11: Multicultural Leadership

- 11.1 Introduction to Workplace Diversity

- 11.2 Understanding Legislation and Diversity

- 11.3 Respecting the Rights of All

- 11.4 Team Diversity and Multicultural Teams

- 11.5 Leadership in a Modern and Diverse Society

- Conclusion

- References

- Part XII. Chapter 12: Leadership and Management Redux

- 12.1 Leadership and Management: Past and Future

- 12.2 Achievement of Organizational Culture in a Learning Organization

- 12.3 Is There a Difference between Management and Leadership? (The Redux)

- Conclusion

- References

- Appendix

- Glossary

1

LEADERSHIP and MANAGEMENT

in

LEARNING ORGANIZATIONS

Canadian Edition

Clayton Smith – Carson Babich – Mark Lubrick

In conjunction with:

University of Windsor Office of Open Learning

With Support From:

University of Windsor OER, ACE: Adopt, Create, Extend Open Educational Resources Grant

eCampus Ontario

Cover Image from: https://exploringyourmind.com/iceberg-theory-decisions/

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Welcome to  Education Leadership and Management, a comprehensive, online, open education resource available for students, educators, and administrators that would like to learn more about leadership and management within learning organizations. What this resource intends to do is introduce the learner to the world of leadership and management within its first unit, from there we move to ethical and learning principles in unit two, communicating decisions and collaboration in unit three, and build cohesiveness and diversity through reflection on leadership and management in unit four.

Our philosophy with Education Leadership and Management incorporates the idea of providing thoughtful educational content, without the financial burden of a for-profit textbook. We feel the content provided in this resource will engage, enhance, and construct new and deep learning within the readers, forging a connection with the leadership and management material to the world of education and the learning organization.

Basing influence on connecting the work from Schermerhorn and Wright’s work Management: Third Canadian Edition with the concepts from Senge’s The Fifth Discipline, we augment the world of business management with the learning organization in a true interdisciplinary way to draw connections, contextualize and create a framework to how the concepts complement each other. The interdisciplinarity of these two realms creates a multi-faceted nature that can apply to many individuals following many disciplines.

We hope you enjoy your journey through Education Leadership and Management, and augment your own connections along the way.

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Authors

Clayton Smith

Clayton Smith, Ed.D., is an associate professor at the University of Windsor in the Faculty of Education where he teaches at both the undergraduate and graduate levels.  Dr. Smith’s research interests include comparative strategic enrolment management, promising practices for teaching international students, internationalization of higher education, and mentoring in postsecondary education.  He spent more than 30 years engaged in higher education administration at four-postsecondary education institutions in Canada and the U.S.  Most recently, he completed two terms as vice-provost at the University of Windsor where he oversaw a far-reaching portfolio that included academic governance, campus internationalization, enrolment management, and student affairs.  Dr. Smith earned his Ed.D. at Florida State University.

Carson Babich

Mark Lubrick

I

Chapter 1: Introduction to Leadership and Management in a Learning Organization

Pictured is Lester B. Pearson. A Nobel Peace Prize winner and former Canadian Prime Minister is considered one of the most influential leaders in human history.

What is a leader? What is a manager? Are the two subjects separate or do they follow along the same thread? These are the questions that we ask ourselves in this introduction to leadership and management. Most textbooks will give a succinct description of the similarities and differences between leaders and managers, ours will place it in the context of the learning organization, which in turn leads to the question, What is a learning organization? The general identity of a learning organization is an organization that is continually growing with its knowledge, similar to an educational organization which refers to a group of individuals located in a specific place to impart knowledge[1].

In this chapter, we will discuss leadership and management by describing the learning organization in greater depth, self-awareness in leadership and management, an outsider’s view of leadership and management, and the use of metaphors to understand organizational complexity. The world of leadership and management is an ever growing, ever expansive idea that changes with time and place and in this chapter we introduce you to that world.

Chapter Learning Objectives

1. Define the classical definition of leadership and management.

2. Define what a learning organization is and its functions.

3. Develop an understanding of self-awareness and how it is used by leaders and managers.

4. Contextualize the different descriptions of leadership and management.

5. Formulate your own interpretation through use of metaphors to understand leadership, management and organizational complexity.

Chapter Tips:

- Attempt to develop your own understanding of leadership and management.

- Engage with the Johari Window exercise to develop a sense of your own self-awareness.

- Create some of your own metaphors to understand leadership.

1.1 What is Leadership and Management?

To start, how do we define leadership and management? Starting with leadership, some definitions consider leadership an act or behavior, such as developing a structure so group members know how to complete a task. A word that is commonly associated with leadership is motivation, as in the ability to motivate individuals to carry out tasks. In addition, balancing forms of encouragement, power and agreement to achieve certain group or organizational goals. The level of leadership relies on the social and group relationship that is present to formulate a vision and direction for the group.

Leadership is defined as a social relationship between two or more persons who depend on each other to attain certain mutual goals in a group situation[2]. Good leadership helps individuals and groups achieve their goals by focusing on the group’s maintenance needs (the need for individuals to fit and work together) and task needs (the need for the group to make progress toward attaining the goal)[3]. Leaders are the individuals who will take charge in an organization and delegate responsibility to other members to achieve the best results. Leaders provide the members of their team with the tools for success and are the emotional captains of the ship. Later in Chapter 3 we will go deeper into the leadership style present in organizations, along with how leaders use power to motivate individuals.

Successful organizations have a successful management teams. With a successful management team, companies can complete goals toward becoming more competitive in the new technical and global business world. Management is generally defined as the process of planning, organizing, directing, and controlling the activities of employees in combination with other resources to accomplish organizational objectives[4] In a way, management is taking the leadership concept and putting it into action.

Management is shaped by an individual’s duties to the organization. Managers have described their responsibilities in nine different factors[5]:

1. Long-Range Planning – critical planning and development.

2. Controlling – Evaluating and “following up” with action.

3. Environmental Scanning – Aware of organizational and global changes in the business landscape.

4. Supervision – Oversee employee work, but not micromanaging.

5. Coordinating – Coordinating the work of a department and at times an organization.

6. Customer Relations and Marketing – contact with current and future customers.

7. Community Relations – Contact must be nurtured with outside the company such as vendors, suppliers, municipal, state/provincial, and federal agencies (especially as a not-for-profit)

8. Internal Consulting – Use of expertise to solve organizational problems

9. Monitoring Products and Services – Having a hand in the development monitoring and delivery of products and services.

Management exists in virtually all goal-seeking organizations, whether they are public or private, large or small, profit-making or not-for-profit etc[5]. All organizations have had some basis in developing from management theory. In chapter 2, we will look deeper into some of the classical and contemporary management theories that are present in organizations. In addition, use management as a tool for self-reflection.

The difference and in many ways similarities, between leaders and managers relies on the effectiveness on the leader or manager. Many contrasts can be found between leaders and managers through conceptual ideals and notions relating to both. First we look at the definitions; words associated with leadership are social, influence, and relationships. This is in contrast with management as the words of organizing, directing, controlling are associated[5]. Yes, both require action to be taken, but it is the level of action that is needed.

Leadership can be regarded as a macro approach to situations with broad strokes ideology in shaping an organization. Management on the other hand can be regarded as a micro approach short paint lines using systems to develop an a + b = c method. Second, both leaders and manager exercise power in their organizations, however both may take different approaches to showing power. Managers are often described as using the carrots and sticks (rewards and punishments) approach; benefits and bonuses for good work, corrections and reprimands for bad work. Leaders on the other hand can use the carrots and sticks approach, but most leaders use a mix of expertise and aesthetic features to gain social influence within an organization[6]. In many ways, the manager will use the carrot and the stick, the leader will create the idea on why the carrot and stick is beneficial to success.

Review Questions

1. How do we define leadership and management?

2. What are the nine responsibilities managers have to an organization?

3. Contextualize some similarities and differences you see with leadership and management?

1.2 What is a Learning Organization?

The University of Cambridge in England, is considered one of the most illustrious institutions of higher learning in the world.

One of the most common ideas about a learning organization is that it only relates to institutions of higher learning. Sure the focus may be on educational institutions but a learning organization can be any organization that fosters growth through learning, and continues to expand that growth in the future. With that being said, any organization that expands growth though learning from a small business to a fortune 500 company, in theory, could be a learning organization. However, we would be irresponsible if we left out colleges, universities, and professional schools as one of the main contributors in the field of learning organizations. The main concept of an institute of higher learning is that they in fact create and foster higher learning passed on from professors to students. Therefore, a learning organization is not strictly related to institutes of higher learning; but institutes of higher learning comprise most of the characteristics of a learning organization.

Peter Senge, one of the most prominent researchers on learning organizations describes a learning organization as a group of people who “continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire”[6]. The role of a learning organization is to be an empowering tool not only within the walls of the learning organization, but outside in the community and in society. In theory, learning organizations should generate personal mastery and self-awareness within the individual.

How does a learning organization function? Well, most learning organizations can function similarly to the classic businesses in relation to their business makeup. Theorists Burns and Stalker[7], and later Emery and Trist[8], and Mintzberg[9], have outlined two organizational structures: mechanistic and organic. Mechanistic organizations are predominantly run as a top-down hierarchy with formal rules and a narrow span of control. Organic organizations have more of a flat span of governance, with flexible rules and a participatory model of decision making. Figure 1 describes with more depth the different characteristics of both organizational structures.

Mechanistic
(Stable, low uncertainty environment)

Organic
(Unstable, high uncertainty environment)

Top-down hierarchy

Less rigid, horizontal organization

Narrow span of control

Flexible, few rules

Specialized tasks

Two-way communication

Formal rules

Participatory decision-making

Vertical communication

Generalized shared tasks

Structured decision-making

Wide span of control

Figure 1: Mechanistic and Organic Organizations (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC-BY 4.0 license)

Most learning organizations function within the first model of a mechanistic organization. Colleges, universities, and professional schools work in a top-down format usually with a board of trustees, president, deans, department heads, and faculty (Figure 2). Although institutes of higher learning are continuously growing in regards to developing knowledge most have maintained a business model that follows a strict set of guidelines and have a small span of control.

Figure 2 Simple University Mechanistic Structure (Attribution: Carson Babich, University of Windsor)

The structure in Figure 2 would be characteristically described as a formal structure which compliments a mechanical design. A formal organization is defined as a set of relationships and responsibilities set from upper management to subordinates[10].On the other hand, we have organic organizations that could also find a place inside learning organizations on a smaller scale. If we are looking at a research project that has been accepted a grant, an organic structure may be used to work through the research. We may have a professor at the head of the research process, with other professors that join with their own control as movement through the research advances. Using the organic structure follows the method of an informal organization. Informal organizations are emergent, complex, and run as a network of different individuals with evolving relationships[10]. In Figure 3 we can see a simple research process that shows the emergent and complex style, in addition how different entities interact.

Figure 3 Simple Research Process Example (Attribution: Carson Babich, University of Windsor)

One key factor regarding learning organizations is regardless of the organization or structure you have, all organizations must have some form of departmentalization. This applies to different structures maintaining control of different department’s (i.e. academics, human resources, marketing, residences etc.), and represent unique structures that pertain to their specific sector[11]. Departmentalization remains an important aspect when talking about how a learning organization functions. It is the efficient process of departments that collaborate as a whole to run a college, university, or professional school system.

Professor Gerald Kimani produced much information on higher education institutes and how they run as learning organizations. Kimani uses the term educational organizations and describes them as “individuals…in a specific place or institution whose purpose is to impart knowledge, skills and attitudes to students or pupils in order to achieve pre-determined educational objectives and goals”[12]. One of the most incorporated factors to work within learning organizations is the act of creating, implementing and revising educational policy.

Educational policy is about creating, implementing, and revising factors of class size, teacher education, teaching methods, and curriculum. Kimani describes educational policy as the process to ask questions and seek answers about the meaning of education inside of an institution[12]. This ties into the management of education with the planning, directing, controlling, and coordinating a specific educational policy. The method to implementing an educational policy follows a scientific method of planning, implementation, monitoring, review, and continual improvement (Figure 4).

Figure 4 Stages of Educational Policy (Attribution: Gerald Kimani, Educational Management)

Review Questions

1. Define what is a learning organization?

2. What are the differences between a mechanistic and an organic organization?

3. Define educational policy, and contextualize its need?

1.3 Self-Awareness in Leadership and Management

Pictured is Abraham Maslow, who was an American psychologist known for his Heiarchy of Needs Theory (Image Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/biography-of-abraham-maslow-1908-1970-2795524)

What does it mean to be self-aware? Self-awareness is the inherent knowledge of one’s character, emotion, and motivations; in addition, to be able to quantify an ability for introspection. The original idea on self-awareness came from the idea of self-actualization by Abraham Maslow in his development on the Hierarchy of Needs Theory. Maslow outlined five needs with the fifth need being self-actualization:

“[Self-actualization] is the final group of needs which is usually at the top of hierarchy. It is the need to develop fully and to realize one’s capacities and potentialities to the fullest extent possible. This is activated after all other needs have been fulfilled.”[13]

In contextualizing Maslow’s view on self-actualization is that only through learning and progression through the other needs, can one’s self-actualization or self-awareness be fulfilled? It would be fair to make the claim that in the world of leadership and management that one should be aware of their leadership and management capabilities before they can be a truly self-aware leader or manager. But how does one become self-aware as a leader or manager? Kimani believes that the ability to be a self-aware manager starts with the ability to motivate others through your passion and goals[14]; in a sense, motivation must be a mix of conscious and unconscious factors of needs, rewards, and expectations.

The role of self-awareness within the learning organization is vital. The ability as a leader and manager is important in the realm of expectations. Have it be in faculty or administration the ability to understand the needs of yourself to be motivated in front of your peers is a valuable asset when developing learning to pass on to students. The mutual expectation between the administration and faculty is an important organizational dynamic in any learning organization.

How would you measure self-awareness? The key to that is taking a deep look at your abilities drawing from past experiences. In addition, looking at your past experiences and making effective choices on the expectations you desire to achieve. When acknowledging abilities and tailoring those abilities to build effective expectations, is the key factor to being self-aware.

The most common way for an individual to accomplish a greater sense of self awareness is through reflection. Using the Johari Window exercise, you will reflect on upon your past as a manager to see yourself. Figure 6 provides a template for the Johari Window exercise.

Figure 6: Johari Window Exercise. (Attribution: John R. Schermerhorn Jr. and Barry Wright, Management: 3rd Canadian Edition.)

As you see, four boxes are created which outline an individual’s open area, hidden self, unknown, and blind spot, from there, you organize the boxes in reference to what is known and unknown to you, and what is known and unknown to others[15]. The Johari Window exercise is used to figure out how an individual’s past experiences shape their future managerial experiences, in addition it provides insight to multiple parties on how one individual will manage, or how one can manage a specific individual. At first it may be difficult due to reluctant nature to be candid about one’s self-awareness. That is why it is important to the area of the blind spot, to gain helpful and constructive feedback from family, friends and co-workers. However you feel comfortable pursuing, it can be beneficial to helping you develop your self-awareness.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/educationleadershipmanagement/?p=270

1.4 What do Others Think Leadership and Management is?

Many have a view on leadership and management, predominantly in the differences between the two. Simon Priest describes leadership as a layer under management, in that under every manager is a leader which needs to be cultivated. The distinction come at the idea that management gets things achieved through systems, while leadership gets things achieved with people[16].

Figure 5 Simon Priest Definition of Leadership and Management (Attribution: Simon Priest URL: http://simonpriest.altervista.org/LM.html

Using this idea of management getting thing done through systems, and leadership getting things done through people presents an interesting view on how many people view both categories. Figure 6 offers some common descriptions of what people view as leadership, management, and an area in between.

Figure 6 Separate and Similar Descriptors of Leadership and Management (Attribution: Carson Babich, University of Windsor)

The differences in how one sees management and leadership is dependent on experience. One who might have had an overbearing manager in a previous workplace may see that as authoritative, where another person might not have had a manager who does more delegating in organizing resources to complete the job. Same goes for leadership as one might have experienced a leader who is passionate about the work in the here-and-now, where another might have experienced a visionary leader who consistently looks to the future for success.

The main factor is that many people will experience management and leadership on different levels based on how they are perceiving management and leadership. One way to help understand the complex nature of leadership and management is understand the organizational complexity that is present within organizations through the use of metaphors and creating an interconnected web of ideas to develop your own understanding on leadership and management based on your experience.

Activity: Leadership and Management Concept Map

- Feel free to use the template or create your own concept map, if possible try and find connections between your ideas on leadership and management

1.5 Use of Metaphors to Understand Organizational Complexity

When using metaphors to understand organizational complexity, it is important to grasp the four basic structures of an organization: simple, functional, multidivisional, and matrix. Similar to the structures of formal and informal organizations previously discussed in 1.2 these four structures draw a clear outline of how an organization works and how the complexity varies between each organization. Edwards outlines the four structures and explains how each differ from one another[17]:

Executives rely on vertical and horizontal linkages to create a structure that they hope will match the firms needs. While no two organizational structures are exactly alike, four general types of structures are available to executives: simple, functional, multi-divisional, and matrix.

Simple Structure

Simple structures do not rely on formal systems of division of labor, and organizational charts are not generally needed. If the firm is a sole proprietorship, one person performs all of the tasks that the organization needs to accomplish. Consequently, this structure is common for many small businesses.

Functional Structure

Within a functional structure, employees are divided into departments that each handles activities related to a functional area of the business, such as marketing, production, human resources, information technology, and customer service.

Multi-divisional Structure

In this type of structure, employees are divided into department based on product areas and/or geographic regions. Jim Pattison Group, for example, has nine product divisions; Food and beverage, Media, Entertainment, Automotive and Agriculture, Periodical Distribution and Marketing, Signs, Packaging, Forest Products and Port Service, and Investment and Partnerships.

Matrix Structure

Firms that engage in projects of limited duration often use a matrix structure where employees can be put on different teams to maximize creativity and idea flow. As parodied in the movie Office Space, this structure is common in high tech and engineering firms.

Figure 7 the four main organizational structures (Attribution: Janice Edwards, Managing Strategic Management – 1st Canadian Edition, Under CC BY 4.0 license)

Metaphors can be used to understand organizational complexity in how companies interact within the specific structures. Gareth Morgan explains in his work Images of an Organization that metaphors, in understanding organizational complexity, provide both partial and conflicting insights, which relies on the “interplay of multiple perspectives”[18]. Morgan describes eight metaphors of an organization[19]:

1. Organizations as Machines (Mechanization)

2. Organizations as Organisms (Nature)

3. Organizations as Brains (Self-Organization)

4. Organizations as Cultures (Social Reality)

5. Organizations as Political Systems (Interest, Conflict and Power)

6. Organizations as Psychic Prisons (Plato’s Allegory of the Cave)

7. Organizations as Flux and Transformation (Logistics of Change)

8. Organizations as Domination (The Ugly Face)

These metaphors describe how one would view an organization based on attributes that surround our everyday life. Have it be the natural, aesthetic, social, cultural, or ethical, the idea is that metaphors will help us understand how an organization functions at many structural levels. Essentially the farmer who runs their own produce stand in a simple structure, to the CEO of a multinational fast-food corporation in a multi-divisional structure can develop their own understanding of organizational complexity through the use of a well described metaphor.

In what ways would you feel an organization is like? Would you take a naturalistic approach and say an organization is like a budding flower, or perhaps you take an industrial approach and say an organization runs like a well-oiled machine. More specifically you may take the way of Morgan and use organizations as creating a social or political system, this is done by saying that organizations create a social reality to have specific interest, conflict, and power[19].

The visual representation of metaphors are important to understanding organizational complexity. Try doing a mind map like one shown here in Figure 8:

Figure 8 Visual Representation of The Eight Metaphors of an Organization by Gareth Morgan (Attribution: Venkatesh Rao, July 13, 2010 URL: https://www.ribbonfarm.com/2010/07/13/the-eight-metaphors-of-organization/

Review Questions

1. What are the four basic structures of an organization, and what are their attributes?

2. How would you define organizational complexity?

3. Describe self-awareness and how it is important to understanding organizational complexity?

Conclusion

How did we do with understanding the chapter with the learning objectives:

1. Classical definitions outline leadership as the social influence relationship between two or more persons who depend on each other to attain certain mutual goals. Management is the process of planning, organizing, directing, and controlling the activities of employees.

2. A learning organization is any organization that fosters growth through learning, and continues to expand that growth in the future. A learning organization primarily runs either organic or mechanistic.

3. Self-awareness is cultivated through Maslow’s understanding of self-actualization. Leaders and managers need to have expectations of themselves and others in order to be self-aware.

4. The view of leadership and management is based on their experience of leadership and management throughout their life.

5. There are many metaphors one can use to describe organizational complexity, it depends on how the individual sees the organization in relation to their world view.

As we move through this journey of leadership and management in learning organizations, it is important to understand how your past knowledge of leadership and management in your lifetime. Use these examples to act as a reference to your own understanding of leadership and management, and how your previous experiences relate to experiences within a learning organization.

References

1. Kimani, G. N. (n. d.). Educational management. African Virtual University. Retrieved from https://oer.avu.org/bitstream/handle/123456789/748/EDU%2004_Education%20Management.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

2. Hollander, E.P., & Julian, J.W. (1969). Contemporary trends in the analysis of the leadership process. In Openstax, Principles of Management, May 31, 2019. Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:OqC-QhwZ@6/13-1-The-Nature-of-Leadership

3. Openstax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:OqC-QhwZ@6/13-1-The-Nature-of-Leadership

4. Openstax, Organizational Behavior (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/LZQauaxb@5.3:TciF5ukb@2/1-3-The-Nature-of-Management

5. Openstax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:OqC-QhwZ@6/13-1-The-Nature-of-Leadership

6. Senge, P. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art & practice of the learning organization. New York, NY: Doubleday/Currency

7. Burns, T, & Stalker, G. M. (1961). The management of innovation. In Openstax, Principles of Management, May 31, 2019. Retrieved from http://cnx.org/contents/c3acb2ab-7d5c-45ad-b3cd-e59673fedd4e@8.84.

8. Emery, F. E., & Trist, E. L. (1965). The causal texture of organizational environments. In Openstax, Principles of Management, May 31, 2019. Retrieved from http://cnx.org/contents/c3acb2ab-7d5c-45ad-b3cd-e59673fedd4e@8.84

9. Mintzberg, H. (1979). The structuring of organizations. In Openstax, Principles of Management, May 31, 2019. Retrieved from http://cnx.org/contents/c3acb2ab-7d5c-45ad-b3cd-e59673fedd4e@8.84

10. Openstax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:W6OQKYg9@6/10-1-Organizational-Structures-and-Design

11. University of Minnesota. (2010). Organizational behavior. Creative Commons Attribution- Non Commercial, ShareAlike 4.0 International License https://open.lib.umn.edu/organizationalbehavior/chapter/14-2-organizational-structure/

12. Kimani, G. N. (n. d.). Educational management. African Virtual University, Retrieved from https://oer.avu.org/bitstream/handle/123456789/748/EDU%2004_Education%20Management.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

13. Maslow, A. (1943). Psychological Review. In Kimani, G. N. (ed.). Educational management.African Virtual University. Retrieved from https://oer.avu.org/bitstream/handle/123456789/748/EDU%2004_Education%20Management.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

14. Kimani, G. N. (n. d.). Educational management. African Virtual University. Retrieved from https://oer.avu.org/bitstream/handle/123456789/748/EDU%2004_Education%20Management.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

15. Schermerhorn, J. R., & Wright, B. (2014). Management: Third Canadian Edition. Toronto, Ontario: John Wiley & Sons Canada

16. Priest, S. (2019). Leadership management, e-portfolio. Retrieved from http://simonpriest.altervista.org/LM.html

17. Edwards, J. (n. d.). Mastering strategic management- 1st Canadian edition. Creative Commons, Attribution- Non Commercial, ShareAlike 4.0 International License. https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/strategicmanagement/chapter/creating-an-organizational-structure/

18. Morgan, G. (2011). Reflections on Images of organizationand its implications for organization and environment. Organization & Environment 24(4), 459-478. Retrieved from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1086026611434274

19. Morgan, G. (1986). Images of organization. Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications

II

Chapter 2: Management Theories and Practice

Dusty Baker is a professional baseball manager, and is noted as being a true “players manager”.

In this chapter we will discuss some classical and contemporary theories present in the world of management. In addition, we will focus on the work of how managers function within the world of organizations; more succinctly, learning organizations. We will also discuss some contemporary management theories that have become present in the modern workforce. This chapter will develop a more in-depth view into the world of management and how management relates to the learning organization.

Here are the learning objectives for this chapter:

1. Describe the historical background of the classical management theories and their relevance to the learning organization.

2. Describe the functions of management within organizations, and theories that apply to the ideal functions of management.

3. Compare, contrast, and critique the contemporary management theories to get a broad understanding of management within a modern learning organization.

Chapter Tips:

- Attempt to track a lineage of management theories in regards to time they were created.

- Attempt to understand why do we have management theories within learning organizations?

- Keep in mind technological advancements and their effect on management theory.

2.1 Classical Management Theories

The world of organizations is viewed to be practical, all things considered. As previously discussed, the management can be regarded as a simple micro approach where the rule a + b = c. However, we look at the theoretical side and understand how specific management theories relate to learning organizations. According to Kimani and his work on the background of organizations we find that Organizations have existed in society for many years found in the pre-twentieth-century works of Adam Smith[1], commonly referred to as the ‘Father of Economics’. Understanding organizations comes from understanding management theory and Kimani outlines four major management theories for the basis of organizations; those theories are bureaucratic theory, scientific management theory, behavioural management theory, and human relations theory. These four theories are generalized as the classical theories of managing organizations[1].

Bureaucratic Theory

When an organization is formed, it usually sets its rules based on its structure. Similar to what we discussed in chapter 1 in regards to formal and informal, mechanistic and organic organizations; one theory relates to the role of the formal and mechanistic organizations more than the others. Bureaucratic theory relates to the formal hierarchy in which many tasks are delegated through individuals and departments, they are also held together by a central administration[1]. This theory was developed by Max Weber (1864-1920) who was a German historian and sociologist and is regarded as the “father of bureaucracy”[4].

This theory is quite popular and is used by a host of both private and public institutions. Kimani states that universities and other schools rely on bureaucracies to function, as the compatibility of this function is relevant in the delegation of tasks[1]. The compatibility decided upon (usually by a central command) is passed down to subordinates that carry the same compatibility to their subordinates and so on. The bureaucratic model, theoretically, has a hierarchical structure along with the specialized departments making a clear outline for division of labor, which is the defining and break-down of work into well-defined tasks, and delegated to be manageable[1]. The idea of division of labor is a key factor in the bureaucratic theory.

Figure 1: Example of hierarchy and division of labor in a university system (Attribution: Carson Babich, University of Windsor)

Scientific Management Theory

In the modern world of technological advancement, it is no surprise the push for understanding within organizations is key to success. If we look at the sport of baseball in 2019 compared to the sport of baseball in 1999, we find a great influence of statistical probability and analytics introduced to the game compared to a decade earlier due to the popularity of Sabermetrics. This idea relates to scientific management theory, developed by Fredrick Taylor, helps to improve an organizations level of task completion through scientific, engineering, and mathematical analysis[1]. Much like how Sabermetrics cuts through the aesthetics of baseball and focuses on the numbers, scientific management theory cuts through the aesthetics of production and focuses on the increase of production and value.

This theory can be used in learning organizations due to its ability to be mathematically savvy to produce the best results for an institution. Colleges and universities may use statistics such as graduation rates, acceptance rates, and research tracking to develop, change or keep their current methods, in addition, use the statistics to compare against other institutions.

Figure 2: Scientific management theory process (Attribution: Gerald Kimani, Educational Management)

The scientific management theory, is closely related to the definition of management we discussed in chapter one. The theory can be harsh as employees are considered more widgets than humans. However, Henri Fayol came along and developed the six roles of management. This brought in a more humanistic approach to the understanding of scientific management, allowing humans to be humans and focusing more on managing situations and using humans to help in the process. The six roles of management are as follows[2]:

1. Forecasting

2. Planning

3. Organizing

4. Commanding

5. Coordinating

6. Controlling

Behavioral Management Theory

In the mid-twentieth-century, one theory was presented that has worked to completely remove itself from scientific theory. Behavioral management theory, also known as the social science movement, uses the concept that all approaches to the workplace should be in the best interest of both company and workers[3]. This theory was developed by Chester Barnhard in the 1940’s as a way for workers to be viewed as psychological and social beings[3]. Essentially there is no separation between ‘human being’ and ‘worker’ as they are one in the same, and that by following this concept would lead to success within a workplace.

The idea of behavioral management is about understanding, the idea that managers should have an understanding of human or worker needs within an organization. Many theorist wanted to find out how the use of behavioral management theory would do within workplaces. One of the main theorist being Elton Mayo and his groundbreaking experiment: The Hawthorne Studies, which we will discuss further in chapter ten in discussion on communication. The Hawthorne experiment essentially used special privileges, pay rewards, even company provided lunches in ways to increased employee psychological well-being, and eventually employee productivity[3].

Figure 3: The Hawthorne Study by Elton Mayo (Attribution: Gerald Kimani, Educational Management)

Behavioral management theory had a great impact on learning organizations, as it provided a new view on how administrators come into learning organizations. There are two factors which are integral to the introduction of behavioral management within learning organizations such as administrations at colleges and universities[3]:

1. Administrators can emerge from different disciplines (i.e. business, social sciences, and arts), not specifically from education.

2. Along with specialized knowledge of education, administrators must have an interdisciplinary grasp of social sciences such as economics and government.

In most education faculties, both the undergraduate and graduate, develop content that is considered interdisciplinary (i.e. covering multiple branches of knowledge and understanding). This allows educational administrators the ability to take on a more holistic approach, which will lead us into our next topic and a better understanding of the ‘human-worker’. Even when administrators and professors develop courses, interdisciplinary theory is used in development (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Education course as a form of interdisciplinary study (Attribution: Carson Babich, University of Windsor)

Human Relations Theory

We have moved through the worker being less of a product with no needs to a human worker with needs and desires. Some would find it surprising that it took until the twentieth-century to realize that the humans who work in a factory don’t become less of a psychological being inside or outside the factory. Mary Parker Follet developed the human relations theory in regards to humans having a more satisfying life through work, and that humans solve conflicts through a process of democracy and conversation. There are six points to which democratic problem solving happen in human relations theory[3]:

1. Listening to each other’s views

2. Accepting other view points

3. Integrating viewpoints in pursuit of a common goal

4. Coordination must be achieved in the early stages

5. Coordination must have reciprocal understanding

6. Coordination is a continual process.

Within learning organizations, we have seen the advancement of programs to help with human relations inside the walls of the organizations. From seminars discussing productivity, improving morale, and good ethical actions, to open meetings where brainstorming happens, the impact has given employees a chance to offer a holistic influence on organizations.

The idea of human relations draws comparisons to Abraham Maslow and his theory on self-actualization (Figure 5) which was discussed in chapter one. Human relations theory allows an employee to develop a sense of self-awareness to understand their place within a company and their influence.

Figure 5: Abraham Maslow Theory of Needs (Attribution: Gerald Kimani, Educational Management)

Review Questions:

1. What are the 4 different classical management theories?

2. What was the famous study conducted to develop an understanding of behavioural management theory?

3. What is the final and highest step in Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory?

2.2 Functions of Management in Organizations

Planning, logistics controlling and leading the ship into the harbour are all aspects of managing with any organization. Image: Marlow Navigation Crew & Ship Management, This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Marlow_Navigation_Crew_%26_Ship_Management.jpg

Now that you are well versed in a host of classical theories, we would like to shift focus to the functions of management within learning organizations. This leads to the general definition of management in which an individual plans, controls, leads, and organizes tasks leading towards successful goals pertinent to the organizations mission, vision, and values. Within a learning organization the planning, controlling, leading, and organizing is the same, it is the objectives that are different (i.e. creating learning and knowledge instead of widgets and profit). Figure 6 outlines the management function as it relates to the learning organization[4].

Figure 6: Functions of Management. (Attribution: John R. Schermerhorn Jr. and Barry Wright, Management: 3rd Canadian Edition.)

What does this mean for the roles of managers within learning organizations? First, it means that managers must be flexible in the different roles required in an organization. Schmemerhorn and Wright outline three roles a manager must take on to be successful within learning organizations[4].

Informational Roles

Interpersonal Roles

Decisional Roles

How a manager exchanges and processes information

- Monitor

- Disseminator

- Spokesperson

How a manager interacts with other people

- Figurehead

- Leader

- Liaison

How a manager uses information in decision-making

- Negotiator

- Disturbance handler

- Resource allocator

- Entrepreneur

Figure 7: Roles of a Manager. (Attribution: John R. Schermerhorn Jr. and Barry Wright, Management: 3rd Canadian Edition)

With these roles come certain skills that one would possess depending on their level in the management system or hierarchy. You will notice that as we move up the hierarchy of management level or capability, you see the more ambiguous the skill set, essentially, as moving from lower level to higher level, the skill moves from applied to theoretical through essential skills[4].

Figure 8: Essential Skills. (Attribution: John R. Schermerhorn Jr. and Barry Wright, Management: 3rd Canadian Edition)

In the last section we discussed some key classical theories that pertain to management. We find one theory that relates to the functions of management within organizations, especially learning organizations, and find a great deal of relevance given that its characteristics blend nicely to the flexibility of managers within learning organizations.

Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor’s 1960 theoretical concept is widely regarded in many organizational circles and follows two distinct styles of management called theory x and theory y[5]:

- Theory X: Managers who believe subordinates generally dislike work, lack ambition, responsibility, and prefer to be led rather than lead.

- Theory Y: Managers who believe subordinates are willing to work, accept responsibility, and capable of self-control and self-direction.

It brings in an interesting concept especially in the realm of managerial function within organizations. In regards to planning, if you are more theory x your worldview will be shaped by planning for subordinates rather than planning with subordinates. Likewise, if you are more theory y, you will be likely to focus on leading staff and leave the controlling to the subordinates. If we look at the essential skills we can hypothesize where McGregor’s theory would be placed given the level of management and the associated skill. This is why McGregor’s theory fits well with the functions of management within organizations, as it provides a clear view on how to tailor your management style.

Figure 9: Essential Skills with Theory X and Y Scatter. (Attribution: John R. Schermerhorn Jr. and Barry Wright, Management: 3rd Canadian Edition. Scatterplot: Carson Babich, University of Windsor)

Inside the learning organization, many functions of management can be used and different management theories can be applied to those functions. It depends on the different organizational structure and the how you want to develop a specific mission, vision, and values. For example inside of an educational institution, the mission would be to enhance learning, with a vision to create leaders of tomorrow. How would you go about that? Would you place a heavy emphasis on controlling the processes to force a direction of learning for students, or release the reigns and accept the notion that students want to be at the institution to learn and to become leaders. The answer might not be as clear, but an impactful reflection on the organization should develop the way a manager functions within an organization.

Review Questions:

1. What are the four functions of management, and what does each function represent?

2. What are 3 organizational roles within an organization, what are their characteristics?

3. What are the management theories of X and Y?

4. What are the 3 skills of all lower, middle, and top level managers? Describe them?

2.3 Contemporary Management Theories

Now that we have a grasp on classical management theory, do these theories still fit in a contemporary marketplace? Perhaps, adhering to strict theoretical concepts the classical theories will always be a base, but they need to be associated with many contemporary factors.

Technology

Today, many organizations are being reformed where a host of technological concepts are rising to the top[6]. In a modern market, computerized technology has been the biggest advancement to work in the sense of making work easier and more effective. Globally it has had a big impact considering this modern technology extends to everywhere on Earth. Focusing on the learning organization, much has changed since the advancement of technology. For example, take this book you are reading right now; a healthy prediction would be that about 99% of you are reading this on some form of personal computer, handheld laptop, tablet, or even smartphone. This leads to the question that in this world of expanding technology, are classical theories obsolete in this new age of contemporary technological management? The answer relies on the comparison and contrast of the classical and the contemporary.

Let’s take the bureaucratic model; of course the systems of hierarchy will remain with the division of labor. However, where one who uses expert power in the form of knowledge to a subordinate, this can be equalized with the advancement of technology. Essentially the employee with their smartphone or tablet can find answers to certain organizational questions just as quickly and effectively as their boss or manager. With this concept at its most extreme, what is the difference between a manager and an employee at this point other than a title? Technology has the opportunity change the bureaucratic model into more of bureaucratic matrix focused on specialization in a more decentralized organization. As an example, the President of a University will be the head of the institution, but will have to delegate and at times defer to the heads in the areas of other administrations (i.e. information technology, human resources , student affairs etc.).

Technology has moved us into rethinking and expanding on the theories of bureaucratic and scientific management, and into an advanced version of a behavioral and human relations theory; solely in the form that decentralization and human coordination will be effective attributes in a modern organization. Professor Jay Conger from McGill University claims that the advancement of new technologies will require managers to be capable of coordinating in a highly decentralized organization, and that the changes will demand not only more leadership and management, but newer forms of leadership and management[7]. Ultimately a more expanded thinking approach compared to a methodological approach may be needed giving the advancement of technology is currently here, and does not seem to be slowing down at any rate. Technology within education will be discussed more in-depth when we discuss Communication in Chapter 10.

Diversity

Diversity has become a widely used term in recent years, given the fact that the workplace in the 21st century is more diverse than it has ever been. We have people living longer, different genders engaged in the workplace, and different members of society actively involved together. This demands a knowledge of diversity and if a classical theory can adapt to the changing notion of diversity.

Diversity in management focuses on the human, with their background and needs within an organization. For example, let’s use a learning organization where a specific department (faculty of social sciences) has members from different generations (millennials, generation x, and baby boomers). This idea has been replicated many times throughout case studies, in the pre-determined idea that an organization without diversity will produce differing views and challenges between the generations. However to have an effective organization, all groups need to be treated fairly and seen as valued within the organization[8], this is referred to as managing diversity. In many ways managing diversity relates to behavioral management as you are doing your best to really pay attention to the workers needs within the organization.

Ultimately, we need to rethink what diversity is and how it is present in many facets within the organization. In order for a modern organization to be run effectively, we must use a more advanced approach of a behavioral model to be embracing of the diverse contrast within organizations. Essentially it goes beyond just listening to the employee, it attempts to listen to the employee based on their specific needs. We will go more in-depth discussing diversity in Chapter 11: Multicultural Leadership.

Globalization

The term globalization became more common after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. With an increase in open borders and advancement in technology, businesses and corporations decided to expand in the new global marketplace. However, as we move steadfast through the 21st century, we find some troubling trends emerging within the global economy. In 2018 the Global Risk Perception Survey (GRPS) conducted a study which listed four trends in the global, external environment[9]:

1. Persistent inequality and unfairness

2. Domestic and international policy tensions

3. Environmental dangers

4. Cyber vulnerabilities

Perhaps a bleak outlook by the authors of this survey, further stating that rigid, hierarchical structures will find no place in a modern high impact environment[9]. Perhaps a challenge to the bureaucratic and scientific models; however, lets dive deeper to see if this outlook can be solidified. Perhaps the idea of a hierarchical structure of working top down is not needed anymore in the globalized marketplace, but what about the hierarchy moving outwards rather than top down? When discussing the organizational environment we would be remiss to discuss all the outside dynamic forces that effect organizations in a global marketplace. These dynamic forces are listed as follows[10]:

1. Economic Environment

2. Legal-Political Environment

3. Technological Environment

4. Socio-Cultural Environment

5. Natural Environment

These dynamic forces are outside of the central organization, therefore outside of the organizational control. Although the forces are outside of the control of the organization, organizations can effectively change policies to stay ahead of the curve with dynamic forces. For example, a large fast food organization may introduce a ‘beyond meat’ hamburger to meet the needs of a changing natural and socio-cultural environment. Challenges can emerge with this format however; for example that fast food company may bring in order kiosk which benefit the technological environment, but may be a deterrent to the economic environment. It remains to be a constant tug of war to ensure a company in a global marketplace does its duty to maintain these dynamic forces in order to foster a positive organizational and social outlook.

Figure 7: Dynamic Forces on Organizations in a Globalized Economy. (Attribution: John R. Schermerhorn Jr. and Barry Wright, Management: 3rd Canadian Edition)

The dynamic forces in many ways can act as a solution to the troubles in the GRPS survey. Acknowledging the risk that is present and putting systems in place to combat the risks is the main idea behind a globalized organization.

How does this fit within the learning organization? The idea of moving outward may be a beneficial and necessary outcome to keep up in a globalized education marketplace. With more and more colleges and universities having off site and web campuses in other cities and countries (technological), a new generation entering post-secondary education (socio-cultural), growing population (economic), political polarization (legal-political), and green initiatives (natural); learning organizations much like the large fast food company will need to effectively manage these dynamic forces to maintain an advantage in a globalized marketplace.

Activity: Management Factors

- Match one of the scenarios to one of the five factors below

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/educationleadershipmanagement/?p=288

Conclusion

This chapter offered a history of management through the classical theories and the contemporary theories of management; in addition, we hoped you learned a little bit about yourself as a manager by taking part in the Johari Window Exercise. How did we do on our learning objectives?

1. The classical management theories of bureaucratic, scientific, behavioral, and human relations offer different approaches to management on a spectrum ranging from product to employee.

2. Self-awareness is just as much about finding about what you know and what is your blind spot only known by others. Constructive feedback on past experiences is very beneficial for developing self-awareness.

3. Classical management theory has evolved in the modern marketplace through technology, diversity, and globalization. Learning organizations are following these trends to keep ahead of the curve in an expanding organizational environment.

Management within a learning organization fits many categories discussed from the bureaucratic to the human relations, from the technological to the global. Managers in learning organizations subscribe to these managerial theories to further develop their core competencies of communication, teamwork, self-management, leadership, critical thinking, and professionalism. Now that we have learned about management, in chapter 3 we will shift our focus on leadership styles, and the roles of leaders in learning organizations.

References

1. Kimani, G. N. (n. d.). Educational management. African Virtual University. Retrieved from https://oer.avu.org/bitstream/handle/123456789/748/EDU%2004_Education%20Management.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

2. Fayol, H. (1949). General and industrial management. In Kimani, G. N. (ed.). Educational management. African Virtual University. Retrieved from https://oer.avu.org/bitstream/handle/123456789/748/EDU%2004_Education%20Management.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

3. Kimani, G. N. (n. d.). Educational management. African Virtual University.  Retrieved from https://oer.avu.org/bitstream/handle/123456789/748/EDU%2004_Education%20Management.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

4. Schermerhorn, J. R., & Wright, B. (2014). Management: Third Canadian Edition. Toronto, Ontario: John Wiley & Sons Canada

5. McGregor, D. M. (1960). The human side of enterprise. In Maidment, F. H. (ed.) Management 97/98 (5th ed.). Guilford, Connecticut: Dushkin/McGraw-Hill. Retrieved from https://www.esf.edu/for/germain/McGregor%20-%20Human%20Side.pdf

6. Openstax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:_lXvzUcs@7/13-9-Leadership-Needs-in-the-21st-Century

7. Conger, J. A., & Kanungo, R. N. (1987). Toward a behavioral theory of charismatic leadership in organizational settings. In Openstax, Principles of Management, May 31, 2019. Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:_lXvzUcs@7/13-9-Leadership-Needs-in-the-21st-Century

8. Thomas, R. R. (1991). Beyond race and gender. In Openstax, Principles of Management, May 31, 2019. Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:n3cSC9sD@6/12-1-An-Introduction-to-Workplace-Diversity

9. The Global Economic Report. (2018). World Economic Forum. In Openstax, Principles of Management, May 31, 2019. Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:7nFKObcu@6/4-6-Organizing-for-Change-in-the-21st-Century

10. Schermerhorn, J. R., & Wright, B. (2014). Management: Third Canadian Edition. Toronto, Ontario: John Wiley & Sons Canada

III

Chapter 3: Leadership Styles, Roles and Traits

Individuals who display traits of leadership tend to make their own path, and motivate others to follow them.

In the last chapter we learned about all the theoretical concepts in relation to management. In this chapter we will shift our focus to leadership and the different styles, roles, and traits that make up a leader. In addition we will discuss the nature of power and how to use power effectively in leadership roles. Here are the learning objectives for this chapter:

1. Classify and explain the four different leadership styles presented in this chapter.

2. Define the roles of a leader within a learning organization and how managers are shaped through different leadership styles

3. Compare and contrast the different studies done on the behavioural traits of leadership within learning organizations.

4. Critique the understanding of power within leadership, describe how power can be used.

Chapter Tips:

- Use some self reflection on what type of leadership style you follow.

- Engage in class discussion on leadership theories to get a feel of leadership styles.

- Develop your own understanding of power in relation to what the text outlines.

3.1 Leadership Styles

As discussed in chapter 1, leadership is the social relationship who want to obtain certain goals within an organization though a mission, vision, and values. In these relationships it is common for leaders to exemplify a specific type of behaviour to direct reports or subordinates. This behaviour is called a leadership style and we will outline four major leadership styles prevalent in organizations:

- Autocratic

- Participative

- Free-Reign (Laissez-Faire)

- Democratic

Within many ethical frameworks discussing how humans in society run a state, the concept of an autocracy may be troubling, some may say the same about autocratic leaders. Autocratic leaders are directive leaders with very little input or discussion from subordinates[1]. In this modern day global collaboration, the concept of the autocratic leader may seem cold and dated; however, autocratic leaders tend to look at the systems and find a path of least resistance to success based on their knowledge. It is not that autocratic leaders do not care about their staff as they treat staff like any other human. It comes down on how to run organizational systems, using their own expert knowledge to lead their team.

In today’s environment, most businesses are looking for individuals who will embrace a more global, inclusive approach. Participative leaders fit this mold as they are individuals who share the decision making process with other individuals and embrace a brainstorming discussion on organizational issues[1]. In many ways the participative leader within a learning organization tends to fit best. When fostering learning with students for example, to engage in a participative atmosphere helps learning. This approach is commonly found in many successful organizations[1].

You can look at leadership as a spectrum, on one side of the spectrum you have the autocratic style, and on the other side of the spectrum you have free-reign. Free-reign or lassiez-faire (French: Leave it alone) is a leadership style in which managers leave the control and decision making to their employees[1]. As one person may think the autocratic style is to strict, one may think the lassiez-faire style would lead to complete corporate anarchy. However the idea behind the free-reign style still encompasses some control. Essentially the employees have freedom to pursue their work as they see fit, so long as they stay within the confines of existing company ethics and policies[1].

In the same vein as participateive leaders, democratic leaders embrace input from all members and have a vote on specific decisions[1]. This can be common as a head of a not-for-profit board who chooses to have all board members vote on specific outcomes. Inside the democratic system you will find that there are two outlooks to running the democratic system. Figure 1 shows the different characteristics of consensual leaders and consultative leaders[1].

Consensual Leadership

Consultative Leadership

- Encourage discussion about issues.

- Require parties involved to make final decision.

- Encourage discussion about issues.

- Leader retains final authority over decision making process.

Figure 1: Consensual and Consultative Leadership. (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC-BY 4.0 license)

Ultimately, the leadership style that is used depends on the organization and the relationships present within the organization. The responsibility relies on the manager to adjust their leadership style in relation to the organizational makeup, goals, and objectives. This follows the concept of the Hershey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Model in which successful leaders adjust their styles according to the organizational makeup[2]. There are four leadership sub-styles in the Hershey-Blanchard model, and are listed in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Hershey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Model. (Attribution: John R. Schermerhorn Jr. and Barry Wright, Management: 3rd Canadian Edition.)

Review Questions:

1. What are the four leadership styles and their characteristics?

2. Describe the difference between consensual and consultative leadership?

3. What are the four leadership sub-styles?

Activity: Hershey-Blanchard Fill in the Blanks

- Fill in the blanks with the correct answer according to the Hershey-Blanchard chart located at figure 2.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/educationleadershipmanagement/?p=300

3.2 Roles of a Leader

When looking at leadership styles we take a macro, almost philosophical approach to leadership; essentially saying, one might tie their leadership style to their own worldview. However, we are going to look deeper in what is actually required to be leader, focusing on the micro details on what a leader can do on a systems basis. We have outlined three areas in which leaders should be efficient in creating. The roles of a leader are to create:

- Plans

- Goals

- Timelines

Planning is the act of creating an outline to guide operations in a direction of their mission, vision, and values. Within organizations many plans can be devised to get an organization to desired goals. Planning within an organization is integral to the success of the organization, but planning should be dynamic and dependent on the organizational structure. Within organizations, we outline six planning styles: Hierarchical plans, strategic plans, frequency-of-use plans, time-frame plans, organizational scope plans, and contingency plans[3].

Hierarchical plans

Strategic plans

Frequency-of-use plans

Time-frame plans

Organizational scope plans

Contingency plans

Administrative Plans: allocation of resources
Operating Plans: day-to-day operations

Long term vision for the organization: reason for doing what you are doing
Connection to Hierarchy: adhering to the mission, vision, and values

Standing Plan: company policies, rules and procedures
Single-use plan: Programs, Projects, Budgets

Short: several hours to 1 year
Medium: 1-5 years

Long-Range: More than 5 years

Whole Organization: Scope is on complete organization (i.e. the whole University)
Subsets within organization: Scope is on one area or department (i.e. Admissions and Enrollment)

Alternative Courses: Foreseen disruptions to the plan (i.e. budgetary restrictions
Being prepared: for actions out of your control (i.e. downturn in the market, natural disaster)

Figure 3: Types of Organizational Plans. (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC-BY 4.0 license)

Figure 4 shows some potential plans within learning organizations in relation to the planning styles.

Figure 4: Development of the Planning

Once the plans are created, you must decide what you are going to do within the plans to reach the level you wish to reach as an organization. After planning comes creating goals or official goals which is described as an organizations general aims as expressed in public statements[3]. Using an institute of higher learning, one might say the plan is to be on the same level of increased enrollment as other institutes within the province or state. Therefore, the goal associated with this plan would be to increase out-of-province or out-of-state enrollment; perhaps even increasing international enrollment. This is one measure to use goals in order to match the plan you desire within the organization.

Figure 5: Goals Implemented

The next phase after creating the goal is to create the timeline for the goal. A timeline is a given set time to complete a task in order to be successful. To be a smart and effective time manager with your goals, the time must be realistic and achievable. Essentially, using the example of the institute of higher learning, if you are meeting in July 2019, and the goal is to increase enrollment by September 2019, That does not offer a whole lot of time to achieve this goal, and in many cases will cause more organizational problems. The timelines for the goals must work well within plans, and be feasible to all members involved.

Figure 6: Timelines Added

Leadership Roles Shaped Through Leadership Characteristics

The roles within leadership through planning, goal creation, and timelines follow come from a frame of leadership characteristics. Leadership characteristics are specific traits within one leadership style in which they use to plan projects and achieve goals. We have outlined four characteristics that are important to the world of organizational leadership:

- Transformational

- Transactional

- Visionary

- Charismatic

When we think of transformational leadership, we can use the parallel of a butterfly and the change the butterfly goes through to from cocoon to butterfly. Transformational leadership heightens aspirations, shifts people and organizations to new levels[4],which is contrasted with Transactional leadership or the action of changing styles, adjusting tasks, and allocating rewards to achieve a positive influence[4]. Scholars in the past have compared the different styles before, creating a dichotomy where only one fits. Another way to look at the concepts of transformational and transactional leadership is that they can both be required depending on the context or situation within the organization. Depending on the characteristic, it must be done in a frame of emotional intelligence. Goleman describes emotional intelligence as the “ability to manage ourselves and our relationships effectively”[5]. Therefore, if you use a transactional approach or a transformational approach use it in the framework of high motivation, high self-awareness, and high social awareness.

As transformational leaders heighten aspirations, visionary leaders heighten aspirations through emotional and intellectual attractions to the leaders ‘what can be’ vision[6]. Through ones vision, an organization can build upon that vision, one example would be a university president wanting their university to be the forefront on cancer research. Perhaps that is a goal five maybe ten years down the road, but a truly visionary leader will never lose sight of that goal in order to find success.

Charismatic leadership is the ability to use charisma (compelling and inspirational charm) to influence members within an organization to bring about change or implement processes. Charismatic leadership closely mirrors the tenants of transformational leadership as the charismatic actions of an individual can greatly influence change within an organization. Max Weber describes charismatic leaders as ones who possess legitimate power which arises from “exceptional sanctity, heroism, or exemplary character”[6]. Charasmatic leaders can be seen as positive influences on an organization or negative influences on an organization. Two individuals presented can show the positive influence and negative[6]:

- Positive: Lee Iacocca – saved thousands of jobs during an economic downturn.

- Negative: David Koresh – led men, women, and children to their death during the Waco massacre.

Regardless of the charismatic leader, charisma must be used within the confines of morality, ethics, and agreed upon organizational procedures. In chapter 5 we will dive deeper into ethics and its meaning within organizational structures.

Review Questions:

1. Describe planning and list the six types of planning styles?

2. What are the reason for goals to exist in organizations?

3. Define the difference between transformative and transactional leadership?

3.3 Behavioural Traits of a Leader

In discussing charisma and vision being key traits to leaders, along with the ability to grow an organization; we look at some of the classic behavioural traits of a leader within a learning organization. There are a host of phrases that come to mind when thinking about what successful leadership entails[7]:

- Drive

- Creativity

- Self-Confidence

- Cognitive Ability

- Job-Relevant Knowledge

- Motivation

- Flexibility

- Honesty and Integrity

The ability to encompass all of these behaviours is an interesting study in its effectiveness in organizations. During the 1940’s there were two institutions that sought to bring the understanding of behaviour and leadership together, it was more of a collaborative effort between these two schools, much different on how they see each other on the football field.

Although mortal enemies on the football field, both The Ohio State University and The University of Michigan thought to understand the behaviours of leaders through their respective studies.

The Ohio State Studies

Down in Columbus, Ohio, researchers were looking for a way to identify leadership behaviours in relation to performance. They developed two major set of behavioural structures[8]:

1. Consideration: The relationship oriented behaviour of a leader. Supportive, friendly, and representing the interest of the people

2. Initiating Structure: The task oriented behaviour of a leader. Planning, Coordinating, and maintaining standards of performance.

Through this study we find that leaders can differ from these two groupings in almost a binary way. One way to connect this to a learning organization is to look at a professor and how he or she teaches the class. Is the class more of a collaborative and supportive environment that represents the interest of the student, or is the class methodical, structural, and focuses on the grades or results of the students? Regardless of the framework the Ohio State Studies outlined two critical frameworks for understanding different types of leadership, and the impact that leadership has on members within the organization[8].

The Michigan Studies

At the same time up in Ann Arbor, Michigan, researchers were at work trying to identify leadership behaviours that differentiated effective from ineffective leaders. What was created was two types of leaders to which identity is created[8]:

1. Job-Centered Behaviours: devoted to supervisory functions such as planning, scheduling, and providing resources.

2. Employee-Member-Centered Behaviours: devoted to consideration and support for members within the organization.

We can see similarties between the Ohio State Study and the Michigan Study in ways that focus on leadership is either tailored towards the company or the individual in regards to behaviour. What the Michigan Study shows is a mix between care for the job which is beneficial for the employees, or care for the employee which is beneficial to the organization.

Regardless of the study, both institutions created a logic that deduces behaviour to a center, one that encompasses all of the traits. Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Moulton developed a leadership grid to show all of the different styles reflected upon by the Ohio State and Michigan studies.

Figure 7: Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid® (Attribution: Adapted from R. McKee and B. Carlson. 1999. The Power to Change, p.16.)

Activity: Case Study

- In this activity you will read the case study and provide answers in relation to the discussion questions.

- You can use the text box at the bottom of the page to input answers.

- If available, tackling this case will work better with groups and answering questions as a collective.

- This case comes from the CYFAR group at the University of Minnesota, link: https://cyfar.org/ilm_8_casestudy1

Leadership and Management Case Study #1
Laura is the associate director of a nonprofit agency that provides assistance to children and families. She is the head of a department that focuses on evaluating the skill-building programs the agency provides to families. She reports directly to the agency leadership. As a whole, the agency has been cautious in hiring this year because of increased competition for federal grant funding. However, they have also suffered high staff turnover. Two directors, three key research staff, and one staff person from the finance department have left.

Laura has a demanding schedule that requires frequent travel; however, she supervises two managers who in turn are responsible for five staff members each. Both managers have been appointed within the last six months.

Manager 1: Kelly has a specific background in research. She manages staff who provide research support to another department that delivers behavioral health services to youth. Kelly supports her staff and is very organized; however, she often takes a very black and white view of issues. Upper level leadership values Kelly’s latest research on the therapeutic division’s services. Kelly is very motivated and driven and expects the same from her staff.

Manager 2: Linda has a strong background in social science research and evaluation. She manages staff that work on different projects within the agency. She is known as a problem solver and is extremely supportive of her staff. She is very organized and has a wealth of experience in evaluation of family services. Linda is very capable and can sometimes take on too much.

The managers are sensing that staff are becoming overworked as everyone takes on increased responsibilities due to high staff turnover. Staff have also mentioned that Laura’s “glass half-empty” conversation style leaves them feeling dejected. In addition, Laura has not shared budgets with her managers, so they are having difficulty appropriately allocating work to staff. Laura said she has not received sufficient information from the finance department to complete the budgets. The finance department said they have sent her all the information they have available.

As staff become distressed, the managers are becoming frustrated. They feel like they are unable to advocate for their staff or solve problems without key information like the departmental budget.

Discussion Questions

1. How can Laura most effectively use both management and leadership skills in her role as associate director? What combination of the two do you think would work best in this setting?

2. What steps could be taken to build staff confidence?

3. What advice would you give Laura on improving her leadership skills and to the managers on improving their management skills?

4. Which leadership style do you think a leader would need to be effective in this situation?

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/educationleadershipmanagement/?p=304

3.4 Power and Leadership

Using power correctly to influence the best out of all individuals and reach the top. Image by Joshua Earle “man sitting on gray rock while staring at white clouds” From: https://unsplash.com/photos/Dwheufds6kQ

As mentioned previously at the beginning of the chapter and in chapter 1 about the main ability that leaders have is the ability to influence. Regardless if you are an autocratic leader or a laissez-faire leader, you must possess the ability to influence your subordinates to follow your vision, mission, and values. Influence is the ability to have an effect on a person, ability or situation, within an organizational structure the ability to influence is to have an effect on an individual, group, organizational, or social level. Within organizations, the amount of influence that one has or processes usually depends on the power they wield within the organization.

Discussing power within an organization may seem like a malicious idea, especially with one person having all of the power, it could be detrimental, but in the context of an organization the ability to have power can be beneficial for the leader and the subordinates. Power within an organizational context is the ability to influence someone within the organization to get something done that you want done within the context of the organization. According to Pfeffer, power plays a major role in a person’s career success, salary level, and job performance[9]. Researches have defined five primary sources of power within organizations[10]:

- Expert Power

- Referent Power

- Legitimate Power

- Reward Power

- Coercive Power

For the sake of order we will start with what we feel is the most effective influence, and most ethically grounded power to the least ethically grounded. First the concept of expert power relies on the leader’s ability to have extensive knowledge in one or more areas within the learning organization. An example of this would be a professor who also has a wealth of experience within administration or in multiple faculties (i.e. earth sciences, and communication). This lends a level of expertise to take control of problems in multiple areas and find a solution to said problems. Commonly with expert power this leads to referent power which is the ability for a leader to have influence through charisma and admiration from peers. That same professor who found solutions to problems and created positive change would be regarded with reverence within a faculty.

Expert and referent power tend to operate on the emotional level, applying the concepts of ‘leading by example’. If leading by example does not seem to have an effect and common ground cannot be reached, using legitimate power may be a solution. Legitimate power is the leader who uses their position in an organization to influence decisions. Ideally you would not want to get to this level, but someone might have to say ‘I’m the CEO and this decision is final’ especially faced with a tough decision where no common ground can be reached.

Reward and coercive power, in our reflection come closer to the bottom of the spectrum as it moves away from an emotional level and uses physical things to influence others. Reward power is a leader’s ability to influence rewards within an organization (i.e. pay raises, benefits, and promotions). Reward power can create both positive and negative aspects within the organization, for example a promotion to offer a pay raise to the individual who can sell the most widgets may lead to increased productivity to get the raise, but cut corners in the world of morality and ethics. If reward power is going to be used, it must be used within the confines of an organizations code of ethics. On the topic of ethics, we will look at coercive power or the ability to lead a team through threatening of negative outcomes[10]. This would seem as a complete last result, if you had a subordinate that was completely unqualified and morally unjust in their own right, you might have to use coercive power to radically change the individual, and if change doesn’t happen, dire consequences will be implemented.

Regardless of the power structure, it must fall within the organizational context it is presented in. Within a learning organization, the main goal is to facilitate learning and provide a space where analysis and critical thinking can be expanded upon. In our view expert and referent power within a learning organization are the most beneficial in terms of using power to foster learning to students as an example. Sure the students see the expert and referent power, but they also have the ability to be critical on certain concepts (especially in the humanities), and if a professor is proficient in the ability to have a focus on student-centered learning, one would embrace the critical idea of students.

Review Questions:

1. What are the 5 types of organizational power?

2. What type of organizational power do you feel are important to effectively lead an organization?

Conclusion

In this chapter we developed an in-depth meaning of leadership and at this point we have developed a full understanding of management and leadership in the context of a learning organization. Feel free to refer back to chapter 2 or chapter 3 throughout the upcoming chapters to refresh yourself on the idea of leadership or management, and use these concepts to draw connections to the other concepts present in future chapters. How did we do on our learning outcomes in this chapter:

1. Identified autocratic, participative, free-reign (laissez-faire), and democratic leadership. Identified how autocratic and free-reign essentially lie on opposite sides of the leadership spectrum.

2. Through the actions of planning, goal making, and creating timelines, certain leadership traits of transactional, transformational, visionary and charismatic leadership come to the forefront.

3. Learned about the behavioural leadership studies done by the Ohio State University and University of Michigan, and how both studies reflected an idea of encompassing all traits.

4. Power can be used in many ways (i.e. knowledge, status, gifts, force etc.), it depends on the organizational context and the embrace of facilitative learning and critical thinking in learning organizations.

This chapter essentially concludes the beginning section on outlining the basic concepts relevant to leadership and management within a learning organization. In the next chapter we will more of an organizational structure and see if we can connect the world of entrepreneurship to the concept of learning and education.

Unit 1 Reflection

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/educationleadershipmanagement/?p=468

References

1. OpenStax, Introduction to Business (2018, November 13). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/Tgl3H6iq@8.5:0ixdcJ7A@7/6-4-Leading-Guiding-and-Motivating-Others

2. Schermerhorn, J. R., & Wright, B. (2014). Management: Third Canadian Edition. Toronto, Ontario: John Wiley & Sons Canada

3. Openstax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:aA5GEBzM@5/17-3-Types-of-Plans

4. Judge, T. A., & Bono, J. E. (2000). Five-factor model of personality and transformational leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology 85(5), 751-765. Retrieved from https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2000-03966-007.pdf

5. Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam Books

6. Openstax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:QjpSSVUM@6/13-8-Transformational-Visionary-and-Charismatic-Leadership

7. Kirkpatrick, S. A., & Locke, E. A. (1991). Leadership: Do traits matter? Academy of Management Executive 5(2), 48-60. Retrieved from https://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~soc186/AssignedReadings/Kirkpatrick-Traits.pdf

8. Openstax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:HUc6el9I@6/13-5-Behavioral-Approaches-to-Leadership

9. Pfeffer, J. (2010). Building sustainable organizations: The human factor. Academy of Management Perspectives, February. 1-27. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46479660_Building_Sustainable_Organizations_The_Human_Factor/link/56cbb52f08ae96cdd06fd53a/download

10. OpenStax, Introduction to Business (2018, November 13). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/Tgl3H6iq@8.5:0ixdcJ7A@7/6-4-Leading-Guiding-and-Motivating-Others

IV

Chapter 4: Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management

Kevin Rempel is a Canadian sledge hockey player and Olympic medalist. Off the ice he is known for his successful venture “The Sledge Hockey Experience” which gives all individuals regardless of ability to experience the sport of sledge hockey.

Do you have the drive to start your own business? That is the key word when it comes to entrepreneurship: Drive! An individual must be willing to take a great gamble not only financially, but socially and psychologically. Although for some entrepreneurs, it seems like a tough endeavour, and to others extremely rewarding. In this chapter we will look to unpack what is entrepreneurship, some risks and rewards to entrepreneurship, managing a small business, similarities and differences between entrepreneurs and small business owners, social entrepreneurship and how it all fits within the world of a learning organization. Here are the learning objectives for this chapter:

1. Define entrepreneurship and the different types of entrepreneurs.

2. Decipher the risks and rewards of being an entrepreneur.

3. Define what a small business is, and its effectiveness in a marketplace.

4. Clearly define the similarities and differences between small business owners, and entrepreneurs.

5. Define the concept of social entrepreneurship, and how do these concepts relate to the learning organization.

Chapter Tips:

- Relate the concepts of the learning organization to all facets of entrepreneurship.

- Focus on the understanding and meaning of the concepts of social entrepreneurship.

4.1 Entrepreneurship

The definition of an entrepreneur can be vague in many instances, the most succinct definition of an entrepreneur is someone with vision, drive, and creativity, who are committed to taking on risk to start a business for profit[1]. Entrepreneurs can not rest on their laurels in regards to starting a business, in the start most entrepreneurs have to be the brain, the heart, the soul and the central nervous system of their business venture, diving into every aspect of their business, and being knowledgeable in every aspect of their business. Below is a list of 12 questions to ask yourself if you are ready to be an entrepreneur[1]:

1. What is new and novel about your idea? Are you solving a problem or need?

2. Are there similar products/services out there? If so, what makes yours better?

3. Who is your target market? How many people would use your product or service?

4. Have you talked with potential customers to get their feedback? Would they buy your product?

5. What about production costs? How much do you think the market will pay?

6. How defensible is the concept? Is there good intellectual property?

7. Is this innovation strategic to my business?

8. Is the innovation easy to communicate?

9. How might this product evolve over time? Would it be possible to expand into a product line?

10. Where would someone buy this product or service?

11. How will the product/service be marketed? What are the cost to sell and market it?

12. What are the challenges involved in developing this product or service?

One question that we have in regards to entrepreneurship; what does entrepreneurship have to do with learning inside of a learning organization? We will explain offering examples throughout the chapter on how this relates in the realm of learning organizations, and how small business success is integral to the success of the learning organization.

Within entrepreneurship, there are three specific types of entrepreneurs:

- Classic

- Multipreneurs

- Intrapreneurs

The inherent drive to start a business based on an original idea (invention or innovation) is the definition of a classic entrepreneur. This can be broken down into subsections of micropreneurs and macroprensuers or growth-orientated entrepreneurs[1], each one has different traits associated with their eventual goals, but the fact that they started a business based on an original idea remains.

Micropreneurs

Macropreneurs

- Based off of an original idea.

- Start small and plan to stay small.

- Business based on personal satisfaction and lifestyle.

- Based off of an original idea.

- Start small and grow to a major corporation.

- Based on personal satisfaction, and pursuing profit.

Tech Entrepreneur and 2020 Presidential candidate Andrew Yang discusses urban entrepreneurship at a conference in Detroit, Michigan. Image by: Asa Mathat for Techonomy, This work is free and may be used by anyone for any purpose. If you wish to use this content, you do not need to request permission as long as you follow any licensing requirements mentioned on this page. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Andrew_Yang_talking_about_urban_entrepreneurship_at_Techonomy_Conference_2015_in_Detroit,_MI.jpg

The multipreneur is someone who starts a series of companies[1]. The goal of a multipreneur is to incorporate a host of businesses and sell them to other larger companies, one example could be an app creater as an entrepreneur of many apps to sell to companies such as Apple or Google. Multipreneurs are always looking for fresh innovative ways in building their companies.

The intrapreneur applies the same drive, vision, passion, and creativity into projects, they just don’t have their own company. Intrapreneurs enjoy the freedom to develop new products and ideas, under the salary guidance of their employer[1], most commonly a large corporation. Although being paid by a higher entity, intrapreneaurs have a host of freedom to work within their constraints, just taking less personal risk on the financial end[1].

Entrepreneurship and Learning Organizations

We asked earlier how the concept of entrepreneurship relates to the learning organization. First, we can see that being an entrepreneur needs vision, drive and creativity. Similar concepts are found in leaders who are in learning organizations to foster learning, and develop a vision, drive, and sense of creativity in their subordinates (example: teachers and students). It would be understandable that a leader within a college setting who starts their own initiative through drive, passion, creativity and risk would be considered an entrepreneur in many aspects. The main takeaway is that the characteristics that are present in entrepreneurs are also common within the framework of leaders and managers in learning organizations.

Entrepreneurs

Leaders and Managers in Learning Organizations

- Creativity: In order to compete, entrepreneurs must be creative in developing an original product.

- Risk Taking: Mostly incurring financial risk when starting their company.

- Self-Motivated: Individually ambitious to see their company as successful

- Creativity: Must be creative to foster a rich learning experience.

- Risk Taking: Incurring risk on a project or procedure to ensure success for members within the learning organization.

- Self-Motivated: Ambitious to see their subordinates successful in their endeavours.

Figure 1: Similarities Between Entrepreneurs and Leaders and Managers within Learning Organizations. (Attribution: Carson Babich, University of Windsor.)

Ultimately successful entrepreneurs are the ones who are working when the rest of the employees are at home, they are the ones who open the shop in the morning and close the shop at night. In many ways the individual entrepreneur is the company[1], you see the individual characteristics, motivation and passion within the company and culture.

Review Questions:

1. What is the an entrepreneur?

2. What is the significant difference between micropreneurs and macropreneurs?

3. What are some similarities and differences between the idea of entrepreneurship in the corporate world and the learning organization?

4.2 The Risks and Rewards of Entrepreneurship

You cannot be an entrepreneur without taking on risk, it is what one does with managing the risk that makes an entrepreneur successful. Many times we hear of the successful entrepreneur, especially within mainstream media, however we rarely we hear of the entrepreneur that crashes and burns[2]. It provides a cloudy view on what entrepreneurship really is and what is needed to be successful.

To give some context, business expert Patrick Henry states that “75% of entrepreneurship venture-backed startups fail… the failure rate of all U.S. companies after five years is over 50%, and over 70% after ten years”[2]. This outlines the challenging endeavor when starting a business especially as an entrepreneur who places everything that an individual has within their venture. So why do the entrepreneurship venture in the first place aside from the general characteristics of drive, motivation, and creativity? It is because startup ventures are interesting and have a deep story to why they got started. These are the same things that get investors excited on the basis of innovation, creativity, and a new way to help people within society. The old adage ‘high-risk, high-reward’ perfectly encompasses the life of an entrepreneur because financially there is a risk, but does the financial risk outweigh the emotional and innovative rewards the venture can produce?

There is much talk on how risk and reward are exemplified within start-up organizations, as an entrepreneur it is important to be reflective on how you look at the organization and the people who work with you in the organization. Sure your drive could be forceful because you want massive success, but the humble actor may be a more useful tool. This relates to the concept of entrepreneurial culture, which is a mixture of personality and management identified by those who create not only the business but the culture that surrounds it[2]. Even if the company becomes successful, it is important for the organization to grow, change its business, but keep the same moral and ethical framework it started with. This can help with retention of key employees.

Within modern learning organizations, we see the entrepreneurship culture of creativity and innovation to help people within society through the form of information and communication technology. Information and communication technology (ICT) is a new concept being used in many educational circles through the use of technology (i.e. computers and internet) to develop a sense of deep learning with students. Educators who embrace the ICT model want to enhance learning ability, creativity and innovation through their students through supporting different sensory goals through multi-media visualizations and technological representations[3].

Embracing the culture of entrepreneurship within the learning organization is beneficial not only to the success of the leader or manager, but to the success of the student and other members involved with the learning organization. Moving forward, the prediction that entrepreneurial culture being used in more and more modern learning organizations seems like a clear forward trend.

Review Questions:

1. According to the Patrick Henry, what is the rate of failure for venture-backed startups? how about after 5 years? 10 years?

2. Describe what is entrepreneurial culture?

3. how would embracing a entrepreneurial culture be beneficial for leaders in a learning organization?

4.3 Small Business and Entrepreneurship: Similarities and Differences

Take a moment and reflect on what you think a small business is, what characteristics does a small business have? Do you see physical characteristics such as a garage, or a table with lemonade? Perhaps you see small in economic terms with simple book keeping such as selling hummels online for $5 apiece. Perhaps small is two people staying up all night with tools and wiring trying to build a machine the world will eventually not be able to live without. Regardless of how you see small businesses they carry many different characteristics.

Small businesses represent represent a large portion of Canadian economic output and are defined by many physical, economic, social, and geographic characteristics. Physical may be its physical space (a small office building), economic in their annual revenue (see Figure 2)[4] *[5], social in regards to their employee makeup (1-99 employees in Canada is considered a small business)[6], and geographical characteristics (commonly located in small towns and small markets).

Figure 2: Key Small Business Statistics, January 2019. (Attribution: Innovation, Science, and Economic Development Canada: Small Business Branch, Government of Canada.)

One aspect that is present in a variety of small businesses today is their willingness to look global[7]. Although their geographic characteristics keep them grounded physically, their outlook and their business model lends itself to a global approach. This relates to the learning organization in ways that leaders and managers will inside of a small organization will look for big change outside of the organizational walls and beyond its geographical limitations. Just like how many small companies in the business world will export their entrepreneurial products to other areas of the world; Leaders in learning organization will use the entrepreneurial attitude to export holistic knowledge to the outside into the world.

This leads to the discussion between the similarities and differences between a small business owner and an entrepreneur. Along with discussing the classical characteristics of each, we will work to use this contrast to develop an understanding of its relevance inside of a learning organization. To better understand similarities and differences, see the Venn diagram in figure 3.

Figure 3: Differences and Similarities between Entrepreneur and Small-Business Owner

The best way to look at this is to use the comparison of a book store owner and Jeff Bezos[8]. The book store owner buys and sells books for a profit, and maintains an effective model of selling physical books; whereas Bezos created a new model called web-based book-selling[8] which is an effective, fresh, and innovative way to sell books.

How this relates to the learning organization is the fact that there is a variety of different way to lead individuals in fostering knowledge. You could take an entrepreneurial approach creating a fresh and innovative way to change epistemological reasoning and grow the knowledge of individuals; or you could use an existing epistemological concept to maintain a knowledge base, maintaining a theoretical concept much like a small-business owner. Regardless of your design it is important to keep a set of inherent values much like the middle slice of the Venn diagram in figure 3. The values must balance the two worlds effectively:

- Creating companies for the general public = Using wholesome knowledge for your learners

- Drive for profit = Drive for developing deep and critical thinking

- Effective business modeling = Effective learning theories to develop learners.

The learning organization in comparison to the ideas of small-business and entrepreneurship, develop a framework, in many ways ethical, on how you can use these business concepts in developing a personal guide to how you develop and exemplify epistemological knowledge.

Review Questions:

1. What are some relationships between entrepreneurs and small business owners?

2. What are some similarities between entrepreneurial values and values within the learning organization?

4.4 Social Entrepreneurship

The Deshpande Center for Social Entrepreneurship located in Karnataka, India build solutions to help people develop strategies to build an entrepreneurial profile, while practicing sustainability. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Deshpande_Center_for_Social_Entrepreneurship.jpg

Overall the different trends in regards to entrepreneurship are changing in the twenty-first century. There are two significant trends happening globally that relate to the concept of social entrepreneurship; bus first, what is social entrepreneurship? Social entrepreneurship is defined by J. Gregory Dees as “adopting a mission to create and sustain social value (not just private value) [and] recognizing and relentlessly pursuing new opportunities to serve that mission”[9]. With using this definition we can look at some global trends that impact the concept of social entrepreneurship.

Market Expansion

The expansive growth in markets develop the need for growth in the areas of world trade and scaling beyond your backyard[10]. In regards to social entrepreneurship we must maintain a level of social value when dealing on a global scale, this relates not only to company standards and products, but with relationships with people.

Resource Acquisition

With growth in the marketplace, comes the need for resources. These resources can be labour, materials, technology, or capital[10]. Social entrepreneurship develops a sense of served accountability for constituencies[11] as described by Dees. Members must be resource aware, practicing the old economic model of scarcity to understand that resources can be finite and managing the resources is important not just for the socially entrepreneurial company, but the socially conscious public.

Relating Social Entrepreneurship to the Learning Organization

The key takeaway from understanding social entrepreneurship in relation to the learning organization is to understand the need for moral and ethics within organizations to maintain a socially conscious business model. The teaching of knowledge should benefit the learner within a learning organization, as it makes way for a better society, and that learning must be done for good, not for malicious intent. Ideally, inside of a learning organization it is important to use the same entrepreneurial spirit that gets you up in the morning and strive for success. Use that drive, vision, and creativity to develop a thoughtful and effective learning experience for your learners.

Activity: Case Study

- In this activity you will read the case study and provide some topics for discussion.

- You can use the text box at the bottom of the page to input a discussion to present.

- If available, engaging in a collaborative model will work well to develop well rounded answers.

- Case study is from the Yale School of Management, Case Study# 11-013, link: https://vol10.cases.som.yale.edu/teach-all/introduction/teach-all-designing-global-network

Teach for All: Designing a Global Network
By its November 2011 annual conference in Mumbai, Teach For All’s network consisted of 23 national partner organizations. Network members came from all over the globe, representing an eclectic group of countries. From Estonia, with a population of 1.3 million and near universal literacy, to India, with more than 900 times more people than Estonia and only 75% literacy, the one thing that united the diverse network was a commitment to building an organization similar to Teach For America in their respective countries.

Teach For America was the brainchild of Wendy Kopp. In her senior thesis at Princeton in 1989, Kopp outlined a plan to attack educational inequality in the United States by recruiting top college graduates to teach for two years in underperforming schools. While the initiative had a low retention rate among teachers, Kopp argued that program alumni would become engaged advocates for educational improvement.

Kopp’s plan succeeded beyond her expectations. Within a decade, the Teach For America corps had become one of the most sought-after employers for bright college graduates from the nation’s top universities. In just two decades of operation, Teach For America had placed more 30,000 teachers in underperforming schools around the country, and had built an alumni group that influenced the nation’s educational policy. The concept also proved to work outside the United States. In 2002, Brett Wigdortz, a former McKinsey consultant, founded Teach First in the United Kingdom. Teach First had strong support from British government, and by 2011, the organization had placed more than 2,500 teachers in schools across England.

Kopp and Wigdortz believed a global group could be founded to help others interested in the model. With the success of their respective organizations, the duo became magnets for social entrepreneurs from around the globe who wanted to import the model to their own countries. They also imagined that a global organization which enabled everyone to learn from each other could be of value to each participant.

After securing funding to build a global network, Kopp and Wigdortz announced the formation of Teach For All at the Clinton Global Summit in 2007. Teach For All was to be a coordinating organization, giving each national organization the autonomy over its own affairs. As these participating national organizations (other than Teach For America and Teach First) were just beginning, Teach For All was a start-up supporting other start-ups on a global scale. It was an unprecedented situation, and one of the key tasks for leadership was delineating a strategic framework that would guide the central organization and its partners. As such, leadership defined the organization’s “theory of the problem” and “theory of change” and then – over many months and with considerable consultation – refined a set of unifying principles and core values.

Operationally, leadership also wrestled with creating an identity for the network and an organizational structure to engage its partners. Teach For All committed to providing on-the-ground support to the newly formed national organizations for two years. As a result, the organization created the Partner Engagement Director (PED) position and hired employees to dispatch to the nascent partner organizations. For the inexperienced social entrepreneurs running these organizations, the PEDs provided valuable counsel for avoiding and solving problems that could have derailed their organizations’ early efforts. And after two years of this on-the-ground approach, Teach For All’s support would evolve to offer other avenues of guidance for its partners.

Since its founding, Teach For All has gained valuable experience and built a solid team. But as the partners and the staff gathered in Mumbai in 2011, there was much reflection on where the organization would go next. The experience in the field had demonstrated the attractiveness of the underlying strategic framework. However, the legal, cultural, and economic variation among participating countries meant the educational terrain would look different for each partner, often resulting in local adaptations of the framework. But how much adaption was too much? How should these local idiosyncrasies influence the selection of national partners? How should PEDs deal with the issues of alignment between partners and the strategic framework? And how should organizations measure impact?

The staff and the partner organizations also had to consider the future. Once national organizations were established, how would their needs change? How would Teach For All adapt to meet the demands of a maturing and growing network? Could Teach For All establish centralized services to provide to partner organizations? Should Teach For All charge its partners for these services? Would network partners be able to overcome time constraints in order to contribute to the collective knowledge sharing that helped accelerate partner impact across the network?

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/educationleadershipmanagement/?p=320

Conclusion

In this chapter we discussed the general understanding of entrepreneurship, small-business, global impacts, and how they all relate to the learning organization. How did we make out with our previous learning objectives:

1. Entrepreneurship is the drive, vision, and creative aspects to start a business for profit. Three types of entrepreneurs are classic, multipreneurs, and intrapreneurs.

2. The main concept is that the risks lead to the rewards within entrepreneurial ventures. Keeping an entrepreneurial culture helps with the overall rewards of a venture.

3. Small business have many characteristics economically, physically and socially. In addition they create an effective impact on a countries marketplace.

4. Entrepreneurs create and drive; Small-business owners inherit, and maintain.

5. Understanding the entrepreneurial spirit in a social marketplace develops a leader in a learning organization to create innovative ways of teaching within a strong ethical framework.

In the next chapter we will continue this theme of ethics and morality to look closer on the effects of ethics within a learning organization, especially in the forms of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR).

References

1. OpenStax, Introduction to Business (2018, November 13). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/Tgl3H6iq@8.5:pEdkag9F@8/5-1-Entrepreneurship-Today

2. OpexStax, Business Ethics (2019, May 6). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/kUrGbuHs@4.2:oTV_i1Gj@3/9-1-Entrepreneurship-and-Start-Up-Culture

3. Ala-Mutka, K., Punie, Y., & Redecker, C. (2008). ICT for learning, innovation and creativity. European Mission: Joint Research Center, JRC48707. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Christine_Redecker/publication/239615297_ICT_for_Learning_Innovation_and_Creativity/links/00b7d522de0a9e2e79000000.pdf

4. Statistics Canada. (2019). Key small business statistics – January 2019. Retrieved from https://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/061.nsf/eng/h_03090.html#point5-1

5. Statistics Canada. (2018). Table 2 – Real gross domestic product by expenditure account, quarterly change – Seasonally adjusted at annual rates, chained 2007 dollars. CANSIM 380-0064. Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/180302/t002a-eng.htm

6. Statistics Canada. (2019). Key small business statistics – January 2019. Retrieved from https://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/061.nsf/eng/h_03090.html#point5-1

7. OpenStax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:o4eXYdps@6/7-5-Managing-a-Small-Business

8. OpenStax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:zJQLkXIw@7/7-1-Entrepreneurship

9. Dees, J. G. (1998). The meaning of “social entrepreneurship”. Kauffman Center for Entrepreneurial Leadership, Ewing Marrion Kauffman Foundation, p. 4. Retrieved from http://www.redalmarza.cl/ing/pdf/TheMeaningofsocialEntrepreneurship.pdf

10. OpenStax, Introduction to Business (2018, November 13). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/Tgl3H6iq@8.5:FH0A0oCX@7/3-9-Trends-in-Global-Competition

11. Dees, J. G. (1998). The meaning of “social entrepreneurship”. Kauffman Center for Entrepreneurial Leadership, Ewing Marrion Kauffman Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.redalmarza.cl/ing/pdf/TheMeaningofsocialEntrepreneurship.pdf

V

Chapter 5: Ethics, Social Responsibility, and Sustainability

Jeffrey Skilling was the CEO of Enron during the early 2000’s scandal which led to the company’s bankruptcy and his arrest. Skilling is an example of unethical business practices.

In this chapter, we will discuss the meaning of ethics and morality in the frame of organizations. Many similarities will be found if you have taken a business ethics class, or a normative ethics class at a college or university, but we intend to go deeper and understand the need for ethics within a learning organization. Furthermore, we will discuss the concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR), how CSR fits in a modern landscape, and the need for sustainability in organizations. The learning outcomes for this chapter are as follows:

1. Describe and contextualize the definition of ethics, normative ethics, and understand classical ethical concepts.

2. Understand the definition of business ethics, ethical leadership, and how these fit within a learning organizations.

3. Define Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and how a modern view of CSR is relevant in today’s learning organizations.

4. Define how global organizations develop and maintain sustainable initiatives.

Chapter Tip:

- What are some ethical questions that are raised in this chapter?

- How do you relate your personal experience to the ethical discussions in the chapter?

- Keep in mind ethics and the relation to a global outlook.

5.1 What is Ethics?

When we think of the word ethics, or when someone describes someone as ‘ethical’, it follows the idea of someone doing what is ‘good’ or ‘right’. Ethics is the code of moral principles that set standards of good or bad, right or wrong, in ones conduct[1]. In addition, ethics and morality help people make the right decisions in a variety of different, sometimes difficult, circumstances. The idea of moral principles connecting to what is right and what is wrong reflects how an individual should act. The field of ethics in relation to how one ought and should act is called normative ethics[2]. Normative ethics, in many ways, relates to objectivity; for example, normative ethics teaches the objective truth that human beings have absolute natural rights (i.e. to exist), along with the concept of freedom and autonomy.

With this information, we can see that the study of ethics may not be as black and white as it seems. Ethics is very much a grey area given the amount of ethical concepts that are available. For the benefit of the understanding ethics within a learning organization, we will focus on four ethical concepts that find their place within organizations. The concepts are justice, utilitarianism, deontology, and human rights.

Justice

The concept of ethical justice relates to what is fair according to the prevailing standards in society[3]. For example in a just society, using just standards, if you were in business deal for $1000 and the work was not completed, the just thing would be to have your $1000 returned to you. Something unjust would be the fact that you had to pay more money, or that the person who initially took $1000 for the job would now spend the rest of their life in prison. Essentially justice finds the middle gradation, moving away from the extremes of what is right and wrong in society.

Utilitarianism

Similar to justice, utilitarianism has a strong hold in societies prevailing standards. Utilitarianism is the concept that people should act, and decisions should be made to reflect the greater good for the greatest number of people[3]. This is where ethics can be cloudy, given that the greater good, in some cases can be completely objective. For example, let’s say a university with a highly-successful football program approves funding for a new multi-purpose field. With this, some funding is now taken away of the academic departments.

Well the positives for the greater number would be seen in the football team, other sports teams who benefit from the new field being built (i.e. soccer, track and field, and field hockey), students who go to the games, and the community outside of the learning organization who watch the sports. Some academic departments would benefit (faculty of human kinetics, and to an extent faculty of business) but most academic departments would be upset that money is going to a new field that does not benefit them. The departments who don’t benefit would say that this is un-just as the field does not fit their best interest. A utilitarian argument would say, sure it might not fit the best interest of the academic departments, but it fits the interest of the students who are both members of the academic departments and patrons to the football games. In addition, it fits the community interest who are a set of tax payers, beneficial to the public institution that a university is a member of. Utilitarianism can almost be viewed as a pros and cons checklist to decide what is in the best interest for the greater good.

Deontology

Is there a list of specific roles to take in society to make sure we are doing well? As humans we do not carry a list around telling us how to be good, we make a mental note of what is good. Deontology describes that ethical individuals will meet their duties as it is obligated by society[3]. How do we keep this checklist in tact? For example, as a student your duty is to show up for class on time. However, on one specific day at the same time as your class you have jury duty. On one hand, you have a duty to your professor, and your classmates to be in class on time, on the other hand, you have a duty to society to be a peer on a jury. This presents a dilemma in check mark on our list should we decide is more important. One might argue being a good student although does not produce immediate benefits for society like jury duty, it produces long term benefits for society, in being a well-educated member within.

Human Rights

In a society, humans can be seen as having rights that surpass many external situations. The concept of human rights follows that the human race has rights to live, to freedom, and the pursuit of happiness[3]. Again this can be a grey area considering that the human race is not the only race on the planet. Using another example, say all humans feel a balanced diet of meat, vegetables, and water are paramount in their rights to live, be free, and pursue happiness. Of course, humans need to eat to survive, but what about animal rights? What about the laws of other living organisms? What about the effect of water loss for other living organisms? Day-to-day we essentially do not think about these things as we are the main beneficiaries of the human rights ethic. Essentially that idea substantiates the human rights ethic, as we have the cognitive ability to think or not think about ethics. I have not seen or heard of a head of lettuce philosophically synthesize their place in the universe.

Ultimately, most ethical concepts produce a thesis and antithesis to their understanding; this brings the objective into the subjective, and produces an ethical dilemma. Essentially an ethical dilemma is a situation that requires an ethical choice for personal, organizational, or societal benefit[4]. In this situation, after hearing two sides you may conclude that one side is more ethical, both sides are ethical, or neither side is ethical. The main idea is that the situation or dilemma is presented and work through a thoughtful conclusion.

Review Questions:

1. What are the 4 ethical concepts presented?

2. What are the key aspects of utilitarianism?

3. What are some challenges presented when faced with an ethical dilemma?

5.2 What is Business Ethics?

After learning about normative ethics and the concepts of how we should and ought to live, business ethics are how we should and ought to conduct business fairly. More succinctly, business ethics is an applied ethics that focuses on real-world situations in the environment where transactions occur[5]. Without ethics in the business, there would be no concept of organizational fairness. This leads to the concept of ethical leadership which is the enacting of ethical values central to organizational alignment[5]. Being an ethical leader and the meaning of leadership are closely intertwined, given the ability to influence others, usually depends on a level of morality and trustworthiness. Figure 1 shows the strategic organizational alignment of ethical leadership in relation to three main factors: vision, mission, and values[6].

Figure 1: Strategic Organizational Alignment. (Attribution: Joseph W. Weiss, 2014. In OpenStax, Principles of Management)

One of the main questions within the world of business ethics is how do we spot unethical activities? Once we spot the activities, how do we effectively ratify the activity and prevent it from happening again? Researchers at Brigham Young University develop eleven categories in which business practices fall[7]:

1. Taking something that does not belong to you

2. Saying things that are not true

3. Giving or allowing false impressions

4. Buying influence or engaging in a conflict of interest

5. Hiding or divulging information

6. Taking unfair advantage

7. Committing improper personal behavior

8. Abusing power, or mistreating individuals

9. Permitting organizational abuse

10. Violating rules

11. Condoning unethical actions

Moving into a learning organization, we find these categories represented in relation to common ethical dilemmas found in learning organizations. Five common ethical dilemmas in a learning organization include discrimination (#8 abusing power, or mistreating individuals), sexual harassment (#8 abusing power, or mistreating individuals), conflicts of interest (#4 buying influence or engaging in conflict of interest), customer confidence (#5 Hiding or divulging information), and organizational resources (#1, #9, or #10 could fit in here). It is important to be vigilant when dealing with these unethical problems in the workplace. You must create a checklist of your ethical decision making process to ensure the best result[8].

With engaging in this ethical checklist be sure to understand the situation when making an ethical decision. It is important to be aware of the cultural, industry and ethical norms that are prevalent within an organization.

Figure 2: Ethical Considerations. (Attribution: Clayton Smith, University of Windsor)

Understanding the ethical culture of an organization is key to ethical decision making; one area where this is relevant is the role of a whistle-blower, an individual who exposes the misdeeds of others in an organization in order to preserve ethical standards and protect against further wasteful, harmful or illegal acts[9]. Whistle-blowers are regarded as great actors of ethics, given the risks that they take for their personal and professional well-being. Once a whistle-blower comes out against a company, there is some legal protection, but the protection is limited, and usually lead to the whistle-blowers firing from their job. In many ways becoming a whistle-blower is a personal ethical dilemma in of itself.

Moving forward, what are some actions you can undertake to ensure ethical actions are taken place? Here are the many ways organizations can influence ethical conduct and proper business ethics[10]:

1. Leading by Example – Establishing proper patterns of behavior as a leader to pass on to your staff.

2. Offer Ethics Training Programs – According to a recent survey of the Ethics Research Center, more than 80% of American companies provide some form of ethics training for employees[11].

3. Establish a Formal Code of Ethics – A piece of organizational legislature which provides employees with knowledge and of expectations, responsibilities, and behaviors towards fellow employees, customers, suppliers. Listed below is a code of ethics for the teaching profession by the Ontario College of Teachers[12].

Figure 3: The Ethical Standards for a Teaching Profession. (Attribution: Ontario College of Teachers)

4. Making the Right Decision – Refer back to the ethical checklist to ensure the proper procedures, follow up , and action is being taken.

Activity: Ethical Dilemma Case Study

- Read the case study

- Complete the three questions below

- Feel free to share with a fellow classmate or with an in-class discussion.

- Source: Classroom Exercise: Air Force Cheating Scandal Reflects Negatively on Organizational Culture.  Retrieved from https://danielsethics.mgt.unm.edu/pdf/air-force-classroom-exercise.docx

Air Force Case Study:
The first culprits people think of when they hear of cheating on a test are students. When the Air Force cheating scandal was brought to light, it would not be unreasonable to assume that it occurred in the Air Force Academy. However, the cheating scandal shocked many because it did not involve students or a school. Instead, the cheating occurred among a group of Air Force officers at Malmstrom Air Force base in Montana.

This scandal is one of several that have rocked the Air Force in recent years. In 2008 the chief of staff of the Air Force and a secretary were fired after failing to properly oversee a nuclear mission. In another incident, a general of the Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles force was terminated after an incident involving drinking. The cheating scandal itself has come to light because of an investigation into illegal drug use among 11 officers across six bases. Two of the officers under the drug investigation were implicated in the cheating scandal.

The cheating scandal involved a monthly exam to test the officers’ proficiency in areas such as safety and launch protocol. It was estimated that the event took place in August or September in 2013 and involved a whopping 92 officers out of 190 crew members at the Montana air force base. This represents 20 percent of the work force, thought to be the largest scandal in Air Force history. An initial investigation revealed that one of the officers texted the answers to a proficiency exam to 16 others. Further investigation revealed that 17 other officers knew about the cheating but failed to report it. Altogether the scandal involved captains, lieutenants, and junior officers at the base.

The bad news continued to increase. Later investigations revealed that as many as 92 officers were involved in the scandal—nearly half of the crew members at the base. The officers were suspended and decertified. The Malmstrom Air Force base operates about one-third of the 450 Minuteman III nuclear-tipped intercontinental ballistic missiles. The Air Force maintains that the cheating scandal did not compromise nuclear society, but the scandal is disturbing nonetheless. As a result of the suspensions and de-certifications, the rest of the officers had to take on extra duties for the time being.

There are signs that all is not well at some of the Air Force bases. While the tests themselves normally have a 97 percent passing rate, the Associated Press revealed that officers had anonymously intimated that they were tempted to cut corners on these tests. It is also notable that in the spring of 2013, 17 officers were de-certified due to bad performance and bad attitudes. In August the Malmstrom Air Force base failed a nuclear safety and security inspection but passed in October. Air force officers may have felt pressured to cheat so as to earn high marks.

Ethical conduct in businesses involves individual values, organizational factors, and opportunity. It is important for organizations to have controls in place to limit the opportunity for unethical conduct. It would appear the Air Force did not have the necessary controls to prevent such a widespread cheating scandal. Additional pressure to succeed at the tests and threats of punishment likely created an organizational climate that encouraged cutting corners (as several officers had related to the Associated Press). In another AP revelation, a memo was discovered from a missile operations officer who complained that his force was infested with “rot.” This does not reflect well on the organizational climate of the base. With both the opportunity and an organizational culture conducive to misconduct, it remained for the officers to individually determine whether to cut corners. Research has frequently indicated that organizational factors often overcome individual inhibitions when the stakes are high; thus, even if the 34 officers had strong values against cheating, they might have decided to engage in this behavior to avoid negative outcomes.

This leaves the major question of who should be held responsible. Did the Air Force base create a high-pressure culture? With something as serious as nuclear security involved, high standards must be enforced to ensure the officers are familiar with the issues they must know to do their jobs. However, the Air Force has admitted that its culture could be the problem, and that it might spend too much time looking at test scores rather than at the officer’s overall ability. In a statement by the Air Force secretary, she admitted that in her travels to three air force bases, officers had intimated that they felt the need to achieve perfection to be promoted. In other words, they felt pressured to score 100 percent on tests. The breadth of the scandal and officer feedback reveals that the Air Force not only lacked the necessary controls to prevent the misconduct, but also might have a cultural problem that indirectly encouraged officers to do what it took to excel.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/educationleadershipmanagement/?p=328

5.3 Corporate Social Responsibility

In the modern age, a great deal of importance has been placed on how organizations, mostly private organizations, place a great deal in making social changes within their companies. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is a form of self-regulation in which firms take action and make initiatives to help people and the environment[13]. There are two perspectives to corporate social responsibility which are defined as the classical view in which Milton Friedman claims management’s only responsibility is to maximize profits[14], and the socio-economic view in which Samuelson claims management must be concerned with the broader social welfare and not just with corporate profits[15]. Regardless of ones perspective on how CSR is achieved within an organization, CSR must compile a level of conviction, and a level of compliance in order to be successful in this area.

Figure 4: Evaluating Corporate Social Performance (Attribution: Clayton Smith, University of Windsor)

The reality is that any form of management or leadership requires some form of social responsibility is found in the responsibility to your colleagues, upper management, customers, and vendors; this relates to the idea of the many directions of corporate governance. Corporate governance are the different relationships that a manager will have within an organization, ethics self-governance are the performance standards requiring high ethical standards and social responsibility.

Figure 5: Directions in Corporate Governance (Attribution: Clayton Smith, University of Windsor.)

One of the most common methods for understanding CSR is to understand the triple bottom line which relates to the three p’s: profit, people, and planet[16]. The method of the triple bottom line is used to measure a level of accountability in their funding to support ethical, social, and environmental causes. In addition, it is less of just implementing CSR for the sake of implementation, the triple bottom line acts as an empirical measure to ensure CSR initiatives make a difference.

Review Questions:

1. What are the steps of the zone of compliance and the zone of conviction?

2. What is the definition of Corporate Social Responsibility?

3. What are the three p’s in the triple bottom line?

5.4 Modern Corporate Social Responsibility

In recent years many organizations have made an effort to be more socially and environmentally conscious. Image from https://provalisresearch.com/news-events/new-free-corporate-social-responsibility-dictionary-available-wordstat/

In 2003, the province of Ontario passed bill 198 in the provincial legislature which made sweeping and significant changes to how provincial companies reported financial standing[17], this would be beneficial to the public knowing more about Canadian companies traded on the Toronto Stock Exchange and provide the public with more corporate transparency. This is one of the more modern initiatives to engaging in CSR, and since 2003 has grown. More in the area of environmental responsibility, companies today achieve for a sustainable model within their organization. Areas where this is prevalent is in how organizations balance present and future needs, environmental protection, and economic development. There are five key reasons in which companies embrace a sustainable model:

1. Cost Reduction

2. Resource Preservation

3. Legislative Compliance

4. Reputation

5. Right Initiative

More will be discussed in 5.5 about the different levels of a sustainable model, the fact remains that organizations in the modern landscape tend to lean towards a sustainable model. There is a key trend that relates to the upholding of a sustainable model. The young, up-and-coming consumers feel social and environmental responsibility are important and in a recent survey conducted by Horizon Media found that “81% of millennials expect companies to make a public commitment to good corporate citizenship”[18]. In addition, the 2015 Cone Communication survey found that 9 out of 10 millennials would switch brands to one associated with a cause[18]. Even with the recent defunding of many environmental programs (United States being a prime example) companies still follow a sustainable model within their organizations, ensuring their triple bottom line is met.

Changes in philanthropic measures have also been a factor caused by a rise in CSR. You may feel that philanthropy would in itself be a socially responsible measure, however, strategic giving ties the philanthropy and CSR to the company’s mission, vision, values and targeted donations to local areas[19]. Strategic giving brings a global idea of philanthropy and brings it to a community level, meeting a host of social and economic needs with a ‘think globally, act locally’ mentality.

We may see challenges when understanding CSR within the context of the global environment. Many multinational corporations must balance challenges, from respecting local practices and traditions, maintaining positive relationships with the host population, and conflicting interest of stakeholders in the area of human rights can all be challenging factors to maintaining CSR in a global environment[19]. Regardless of a local company, or a large multinational conglomerate, it would be in best practices that the organizations exemplify a level of good conviction and good compliance in order to maintain good ethical status and relationships within a foreign country.

Figure 6: Corporate Social Performance on a Global Level (Attribution: Clayton Smith and Carson Babich, University of Windsor.)

Although CSR is not a complete fix to organizational challenges or the only factor in making an organization successful, but it is a good first step. Within learning organizations, CSR changes have found its place in the administrative conversation. At the University of Windsor the Environmental Sustainability Advocacy (ESA) in the goals of making the University a more “ecologically responsible place to work, study, teach, and conduct research”[20]. In a new global marketplace, the CSR trend does not seem to be going away, given the impact it has on many young consumers within the marketplace. In relation to the learning organization, younger professors and administrators are entering the workforce expanding on the concept of CSR which will remain strong within learning organizations.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/educationleadershipmanagement/?p=332

5.5 Sustainability in Global Organizations

Let us go deeper in to the sustainable model and describe how sustainability within a global marketplace is relevant and apparent to success. First, let’s get a more succinct meaning to the five factors.

Cost Reduction

Resource Preservation

Legislative Compliance

Reputation

Right Initiative

Finding more efficient and sustainable means of production.

Using alternative energy methods to produce products. (Moving from oil and coal to wind and solar).

Adhering to the laws and regulations of home and host countries. (Following municipal, state/province, and federal laws in regards to environmental protection and human rights).

Maintain a positive reputation within your home and abroad communities. This means keeping up to date with generational trends.

Ensure ethical initiatives are in place for moral good in all endeavors.

As discussed, an organization can find itself in a host of challenges when maintaining a sustainable model in the global marketplace; according to Daft the greater complexity in the environment, the greater chance for ethical problems and misunderstandings[21]. Global organizations can find challenges in maintaining any one of the five areas and must be cognizant of that factor, especially in the areas of legislative compliance and reputation. Joseph W. Weiss outlines major management and ethical issues within multi-national corporations coming in the form of economic issues (cost reduction), political (legislative/reputation), technological (reputation), social and labor (legislative, reputation, right initiative), and ecological (resource preservation)[22]. Weiss also outlines that American companies are usually required to assist and add value to local countries. Here is a list of some of these practices[22]:

- Hiring local labor

- Creating new jobs

- Developing particular industry sectors

- Provide business and learning skills

- Helping decrease the countries debt and improve its balance of payments and standard of living.

The goal of the sustainable practices is to maintain a positive relationship with host countries, in turn, remain relevant and competitive in the global marketplace. The ethical implications are seen here in regards to maintaining sustainability through the five factors; however, the motivation still remains un-clear. An ethical understanding needs to be further explored on the psychological level in that are companies truly willing to engage in sustainability to do good, or remain relevant in a global marketplace, essentially the argument of doing good for ‘good-ness’ sake, or doing good for the sake of competitive advantage. Regardless of the motivation, the fact that CSR exists and the discussion of ethical frameworks has been beneficial to the advancement of organizations from the industrial revolution to modern times.

This applies to learning organizations and how ethics is found within organizations. The freedom to pursue learning, especially in a global environment is paramount to the success of the learners and leaders within the organization. Many leaders within learning organizations have been practicing a sustainable model, a model of ‘think globally and act locally’ where leaders use broad globalized concepts and bring them to a community level where their organization is held.

Review Questions:

1. What are the 5 factors of sustainability in a global marketplace?

2. What are 5 practices Joseph Weiss outlines that American companies should do when expanding their corporations in other countries?

3. How do the practices of global sustainability relate to the learning organization?

Conclusion

In this chapter we were introduced to a broad idea of ethics in relation to corporate and learning organizations. The goal of this chapter was to provide a general understanding of ethics and how they relate to the everyday procedures found within organizations. How did we do in regards to our learning outcomes?

1. Ethics is a code of moral principles that set the standards of right and wrong. Normative ethics is the basis of right and wrong and how one ought and should act. There are four ethical concepts relevant in learning organizations: Justice, utilitarianism, deontology and human rights.

2. Business ethics are how we ought to conduct business fairly using real-world situations. Ethical leadership is organizing morals in relation to organizational alignment.

3. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is a self-regulatory measure which guides organizations to make initiatives to help people and the environment through using compliance along with conviction. Newer demographics in the workplace will continue to use and benefit from CSR

4. Global organizations can find challenges when working in a global marketplace. Alleviating those challenges can be done by developing and enhancing the five factors of sustainability: Cost reduction, resource prevention, legislative compliance, reputation, and right initiative.

Regardless of personal ethical views on many topics, the need for ethics within a learning organizations vital to the success of that organization. The success comes from a precedent of good ethical and moral behavior starting from the top of the organization that trickles down throughout. Furthermore, the growth of an organization can rely on how ethically moral one organization is, given its importance in with new demographics in a global marketplace.

References

1. Trevino, L. K., & Nelson, K. A. (2003). Managing business ethics: Straight talk about how to do it right. In Smith, C. (ed.) 14-80-415, Learning Organizations: Management and Leadership, University of Windsor [PowerPoint Presentation] Week 5, slide 8. Retrieved from https://blackboard.uwindsor.ca/bbcswebdav/pid-1056670-dt-content-rid-10007770_1/courses/DEV-csmith-EDUC4150/5-Ethics.pdf

2. OpenStax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:JaKv7fV9@5/5-1-Ethics-and-Business-Ethics-Defined

3. OpenStax, Introduction to Business (2018, November 13). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/Tgl3H6iq@8.5:R35ftDQ0@7/2-1-Understanding-Business-Ethics

4. Smith, C. (2018). 14-80-415, Learning Organizations: Management and Leadership, University of Windsor.

5. OpenStax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:JaKv7fV9@5/5-1-Ethics-and-Business-Ethics-Defined

6. Weiss, J. W. (2014). Strategic organizational alignment. In OpenStax, Principles of Management, May 31, 2019. Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:zlehnBLW@5/5-4-Leadership-Ethics-at-the-Organizational-Level#ch05fig04

7. OpenStax, Introduction to Business (2018, November 13). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/Tgl3H6iq@8.5:R35ftDQ0@7/2-1-Understanding-Business-Ethics

8. Smith, C. (2018). 14-80-415, Learning Organizations: Management and Leadership, University of Windsor.

9. Miceli, M. P., Near, J. P., & Dworkin, T. M. (2008). Whistle-blowing in organizations. New York: NY: Taylor & Francis Group.

10. OpenStax, Introduction to Business (2018, November 13). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/Tgl3H6iq@8.5:Af3tSe28@8/2-2-How-Organizations-Influence-Ethical-Conduct

11. Meinert, D. (2017). Creating an ethical workplace, In OpenStax, Introduction to Business, November 13, 2018. Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/Tgl3H6iq@8.5:Af3tSe28@8/2-2-How-Organizations-Influence-Ethical-Conduct

12. Ontario College of Teachers. (n. d.). The ethical standards for the teaching profession. Retrieved from https://www.oct.ca/-/media/PDF/Standards%20Poster/standards_flyer_e.pdf

13. OpenStax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:vneCJigG@5/5-6-Corporate-Social-Responsibility-CSR

14. Friedman, M. (1962). Capitalism and freedom. In Smith, C. (ed.) 14-80-415, Learning Organizations: Management and Leadership, University of Windsor [PowerPoint Presentation] Week 5, slide 8. Retrieved from https://blackboard.uwindsor.ca/bbcswebdav/pid-1056670-dt-content-rid-10007770_1/courses/DEV-csmith-EDUC4150/5-Ethics.pdf

15. Samuelson, P. (1971). Understanding the Marxian notion of exploitation: A summary of the so-called transformation problem between Marxian values and competitive prices. In Smith, C. (ed.) 14-80-415, Learning Organizations: Management and Leadership, University of Windsor [PowerPoint Presentation] Week 5, slide 36. Retrieved from https://blackboard.uwindsor.ca/bbcswebdav/pid-1056670-dt-content-rid-10007770_1/courses/DEV-csmith-EDUC4150/5-Ethics.pdf

16. Elkington, J. (1999). Cannibals with forks. In OpenStax, Principles of Management May 31, 2019. Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:vneCJigG@5/5-6-Corporate-Social-Responsibility-CSR

17. PricewaterhouseCoopers. (2004). Bill 198-Overview. In Edwards, J. (ed). Mastering strategic management- 1st Canadian edition. Creative Commons Attribution- Non Commercial, ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Retrieved from https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/strategicmanagement/chapter/corporate-ethics-and-social-responsibility/#return-footnote-339-1

18. Rudominer, R. (2017). Corporate social responsibility matters: Ignore millennials at your peril. In OpenStax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:vneCJigG@5/5-6-Corporate-Social-Responsibility-CSR

19. OpenStax, Introduction to Business (2018, November 13). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/Tgl3H6iq@8.5:Dmv0havw@7/2-5-Trends-in-Ethics-and-Corporate-Social-Responsibility

20. University of Windsor. (n. d.). About: Environmental sustainability advocacy. Retrieved from http://www.uwindsor.ca/sustainability/327/about

21. Daft, R. (2016). Organizational theory & design. In OpenStax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:OPzni6Vq@5/5-7-Ethics-around-the-Globe

22. Weiss, J. W. (2014). Business ethics: A stakeholder and issues management approach. In OpenStax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:OPzni6Vq@5/5-7-Ethics-around-the-Globe

VI

Chapter 6: Learning Principles

To understand learning you must understand the theories behind how learning develops.

When we talk about learning theories we primarily talk about theories present in the education stream of K through 12. Although the theories in this chapter can relate to the area of K through 12, a heavy emphasis will be placed on adult learning within post-secondary learning institutions. Furthermore, we will decipher some key theories in organizational learning, and the nature of knowledge in relation to work within learning organizations. Listed are the following learning objectives:

1. Identify and define the learning cycle for adult education.

2. Compare and contrast the differences between short term memory and long term memory, and relate it to the realm of higher education inside a learning organization.

3. Define epistemology and understand the base theory of learning.

4. Define the theories of organizational learning, and contextualize how they would fit in a learning organization.

5. Define the three c’s of knowledge in relation to work within a learning organization.

Chapter Tips:

- Develop an understanding of epistemology and why it is important in a learning organization.

- Look in-depth to the theories of learning within organizations and the relation to learning organizations.

- Familiarize yourself with constructivism and Bloom’s Taxonomy.

6.1 The Learning Cycle

As previously mentioned we will focus on adult learning within a learning organization. The concept of adult learning is a rich experience given a university can have a diverse range of adults take classes at any time. Diversity is seen with age, gender, experience, and education level. Adults in university have a level of freedom to pursue their academics on their own terms, which leads to a host of different learning styles present in adults. Theoretically, adults engage in academic learning, which forms a four step cycle[1]:

1. Prepare

2. Absorb

3. Capture

4. Review

Figure 1: Four Step Cycle of Academic Learning. (Attribution: College Success, University of Minnesota, 2015, CC BY-NC-SA)

Prepare

The concept of preparation relates to the individual’s readiness. In relation to learning within an institution or organization, preparation is the individual’s readiness to pursue knowledge within a class, semester, or program. Stewart and Maisonville describe preparing as the ability to put yourself in the right mind-set to learn[1]; which places the emphasis on mental preparedness. Within the learning organizations, preparedness comes from being in the right mind-set to learn, as well as having some knowledgeable aspects to set you up for success. One aspect that defines good leaders and good managers in the realm of learning organizations is their extent of expert knowledge within a field, therefore one who has the knowledge available will become better prepared for work.

Absorb

What comes to mind often is the simile of the sponge. Absorbing knowledge is like the student is the sponge and the water is the knowledge getting absorbed, but the sponge has the ability not to only absorb water but to absorb a host of liquids (coffee, soup etc.). This relates to the notion that absorption for a student is the taking in of new and different idea within a classroom or reading a textbook[1]. Absorption in the case of a leader or manager within a learning organization can come from agents of accountability (i.e. upper managers) or agents of dependency (i.e. subordinates), the ability to accept new knowledge is a key factor to being a successful leader and manager within a learning organization.

Capture

When absorbing material, sometimes it doesn’t stay in the sponge and leaks out, even though it leaks out it was an important aspect to be absorbed. This is where capturing comes in and relates to the re-interpretation of knowledge for better understanding and contextualization. For leaders and managers within learning organization, consistent review and process is done on a daily basis. Past measurements, performance, and forecasting provide a map to the re-capturing of new data for better understanding in future endeavors.

Review

Going over all of the information from absorption to capturing is important to fully grasp a concept and to gain full understanding. Once gaining the full understanding the student should be able to identify, describe and contextualize a piece of knowledge; this is referred to as reviewing. Using the cycle, Stewart and Maisonville also use the review process as a way to prepare for new information and ideas[1]. This is also relevant for leaders and managers within learning organizations as review depends on capturing knowledge, and capturing new knowledge depends on reviewing. For example organizational forecasting cannot be achieved without a review of the organizations past, and with no understanding of the past, as a leader or manager you will not be able to effectively forecast. Consistent revision is imperative to the success of a student or someone working in a learning organization.

How Memory Works

The concept of learning is closely tied to memory, and retention of relevant learning materials. Memory works in two ways: short-term memory and long-term memory. Memory in the short term is the active approach to memorization and focuses on learning in the moment, whereas memory in the long term is the passive approach through a series of data links which are retained in our minds at all times[1]. Learning can vary by individual, but the concept of fostering deep learning and long-term retention is beneficial to a student, teacher, or administrator in a learning organization.

Review Questions:

1. What are the four steps to academic learning?

2. What is the difference between long-term and short-term memory?

6.2 Epistemology and Basic Methodology

The cartoon rendition of Augustus explaining epistemology to his learners may not be as easy as it seems. Image from Maximus Confesses, https://medium.com/the-liturgical-legion/augustinian-epistemology-d8ae3b25023c

The basis of learning is grounded in knowledge of a specific topic or idea. Because of different worldviews and experiences present, knowledge can be different from one individual to the next. Inside of a learning organization, one leader may have a different set of knowledge and skill set compared to the next leader; because they both have different knowledge, or different experiential paths to get to their knowledge, does that make any one of them less of a leader? Epistemology according to Hofer and Pintrich “is a branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and justification of knowledge”[2]. The applied concept of the justification in knowledge has to do with the idea of consensus. We find justification in the consensus of ideas. One example would be that the scientific consensus is that the earth and the planets in the solar system follow the heliocentric model (revolve around our parent star: the Sun). However, with different worldviews and different life experiences, one might disprove the scientific model.

This introduces the idea with epistemology that one who has the knowledge of a scientifically proven epistemological method has the duty to teach one who might not follow a consensus about a topic. This is not to say one is more wrong than the other, rather to show the knowledge first hand with empiricism and rationality.

With the introduction of a scientific ideal, we can find a scientific method to teaching. The scientific method to teaching is based on grounded theory, research, and conflicting theories of some research commonly driven by epistemological difference[2]. Along with the epistemological side, there is also a side that is grounded in the teacher’s experience. Ones experiences can shape the worldview of an individual, therefore should not be the main measure in a good teacher, one could have great knowledge and no experience, where one could have a host of experience, but consensus knowledge is limited.

Keep this in mind as we advance through how learning within organizations can be developed and cultivated through epistemology. We will be looking at the difference between individual needs and motivation, and discuss the concepts of equity, expectancy, goal setting and self-efficacy. As an exercise, see how the ideas presented in organizational learning theories justify their base of knowledge, and contextualize what theories follow an epistemological model. Figure 2 shows how justification through knowledge can be reached with an issue based model.

Figure 2: Issue Based Information System: Rhetorical Rules Diagram with Three Nodes (Attribution: Jeffrey E. Conklin; Michael L. Begeman. 1998. gIBIS: a hypertext tool for exploratory policy discussion. Creative Commons, CC0 1.0 Universal (CC0 1.0)
Public Domain Dedication)

Review Questions:

1. What is epistemology according to Hofer and Pintrich?

2. What is the scientific method of teaching?

3. What is the three steps of the Rhetorical Rules Diagram?

6.3 Theories of Learning within Organizations

When we think of learning within a learning organization, we tend to focus on two distinct needs of leader, manager, subordinates and direct reports. As humans we are all driven by an innate force to be actionable, the ability to use that force within an organization to account for the persistence to do work is referred to motivation needs. The need to be active either physically or mentally refers to the inherent abilities that are present. But what if an aspect is not present or unfulfilled? The concept of deficient psychological or physiological needs in an individual are referred to as individual needs[3]. With understanding that humans within an organization have different needs regardless of status, we can develop an understanding of many theories that complement the motivation and individual needs of members within a learning organization. If we recall Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in Chapter 3 we see that this is a great tool to understand needs within an individual in an organization. Going deeper we can simplify the Maslow Hierarchy and use Alderfer’s ERG theory. Essentially the ERG theory builds on and collapses Maslow’s 5 needs into 3 distinct categories[4]:

1. Existence Needs – Psychological and material well-being.

2. Relatedness Needs – Desires for satisfying personal relationships.

3. Growth Needs – Continued psychological growth and development.

When we contrast the Maslow with Alderfer we can identify the different needs required from Maslow be placed in the ERG model. Essentially the ERG model outlines the main factors of individual motivation towards growth and development or regression and frustration[5].

Figure 3: Comparing and Contrasting Alderfer and Maslow. (Attribution: Clayton Smith, University of Windsor.)

Along with the ERG theory we have two other theories connected with the topic of organizational needs. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory and McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory. In the two-factor theory we use a binary model to exemplify job satisfaction[6]:

- Satisfier Factors: nature of the job that is satisfying.

- Hygiene Factors: work setting that is unsatisfying or “turned them off”.

With this specific theory we look at the members of the organizations and the different actions that are implemented for employee satisfaction. One example would be that an individual may work in a great work space with wonderful people and a great interpersonal culture, however that same organization might not align with someone environmentally or in regards to social responsibility. Most organizations do not align to one side when you take into account all of the factors, however using a utilitarian approach to find the greater number of satisfier factors to hygiene factors is the best course. On the other hand, if one hygiene factor is very unsatisfying such as an extremely toxic work environment, that might outweigh the satisfiers of pay, benefits, and job security. Looking at the two factor theory critically we can break down the binary model and understand given experience and the weighting of actions, you can prioritize importance within a two-factor theory.

The acquired needs theory developed by psychologist David McClelland uses the experiential approach of ones needs through a Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT)[6]. The acquired needs theory attempts to identify three needs:

- Need for Achievement

- Need for Power

- Need for Affiliation

This theory proposes an in-depth understanding of another two-factor contrast between the dominant motivators and the characteristics of the individual. McClelland found that there is a correlation between the psychological characteristics and their acquired needs to be successful[6].

Dominant Motivator

Achievement

Power

Affiliation

Characteristics of the Person

- Strong need to set and accomplish goals.

- Takes calculated risks to accomplish their goals.

- Likes to receive regular feedback on their progress and achievements.

- Often likes to work alone.

- Strong need to control and influence others.

- Likes to win arguments.

- Enjoys competition and winning.

- Enjoys status and recognition.

- Wants to belong to the group

- Wants to be liked, and will often go along with whatever the rest of the group wants to do.

- Favours collaboration over competition.

- Doesn’t like high risk or uncertainty.

Figure 4: Dominant Motivators and Characteristics Affecting Acquired Needs. (Attribution: Clayton Smith, University of Windsor.)

Motivation Theories

Motivation theories are organizational learning theories which rely on how people behave in order to motivate themselves to complete a task. There are four specific types of process theories of motivation:

1. Equity Theory

2. Expectancy Theory

3. Goal-Setting Theory

4. Self-Efficacy Theory

Equity Theory

Developed in the 1960’s by J. Stacy Adams, the theory of equity in motivation is based on the logic of social comparisons of the notion that perceived inequality is a motivating state, and people have different preferences to equity which is described as equitysensitivity[7]. This represents that perceived equity or inequity is the key motivating factor for motivation. Essentially if someone states the ‘why work hard because I will never reach this area’ can be an idea of a perceived inequity. However, the inequity in some cases may only be perceived and there is options available to use goals to build an equitable reality. In other cases the inequality is too overwhelming for one to match. It depends on the experience and the tools available to the individual.

Expectancy Theory

Developed in 1964 by Victor Vroom, and purposes that motivation comes from three expectancy factors[8]:

1. Expectancy – belief that working hard will result in desired outcomes

2. Instrumentality – belief that successful performance (quantifiable) will be followed by desired outcomes.

3. Valence – the value placed on possible rewards and work-related outcomes.

The idea of expected outcomes based on work is at the heart of this theory, it uses in many ways a reward/punishment aspect (i.e. work hard and be a successful performer you will receive reward). The variable is the understanding of valence and its connection the expectancy and instrumentality. Sure someone might want to strive to work hard if a truly life-changing reward is waiting in the balance, but another may be hesitant if the valence of the reward does not align with the individuals context of expectancy or instrumentality.

Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence = Motivation

Goal-Setting Theory

Developed by Edwin Locke in 1984, the goal setting theory encompasses both an idea of planning and execution. The idea of the theory is that goals can be motivating if they are properly set (planning) and well managed (execution) through four outlines[9]:

1. Give Direction

2. Clarify Performance Expectations

3. A Frame of Reference for Feedback

4. Foundation for Behavioural Self-Management

The idea is if that goals are well produced and followed up upon, motivation of the individual in an organization are raised. This theory brings a deeper understanding to the concepts of scientific management in the area of planning, organizing, coordinating, and controlling.

Self-Efficacy Theory

Developed in 1977 by Albert Bandura, the self-efficacy theory relates to the idea of being self-efficient. This means the individual feels they are self-efficient or personally capable to performing a task, in addition, there are four area in which self-efficacy can be enhanced[10]:

1. Enactive Mastery – confidence through positive experience

2. Vicarious Modeling – learning by observing others

3. Verbal Persuasion

4. Emotional Arousal

Understanding how learning can be cultivated in a learning organization such as a university, you can find this idea of self-efficacy be presented. Educators look to install a sense of mastery in their students through many individual and collaborative exercises to produce an emotional and holistic learning experience.

Bringing the Theories Together

Regardless of the organizational theory you use in regards to learning each theory follows a stream of reinforcement. Reinforcement strategies are tools used by the manager to strengthen policies and procedures through subordinates in an organization. Reinforcement strategies were first studied by Barrhus Skinner in 1948 where he coined the term Operant Conditioning:

“The process of applying the law of effect to control behaviour by manipulating its consequences”[11]

There are four principles to reinforcement strategies and Figure 5 outlines a tree illustrating from management to individual how each enforcement principle is relayed.

Figure 5: Using Reinforcement Strategies in Management. (Attribution: John R. Schermerhorn Jr. and Barry Wright, Management: 3rd Canadian Edition.)

Review Questions:

1. What are the two types of needs individuals seek within organizations?

2. What are the three dominant motivators affecting acquired needs? What are their characteristics?

3. What are the four types of motivation theories?

6.4 The 3 C’s

With the understanding of reinforcement you can foster a proper learning atmosphere within learning organizations. The learning cycle, along with the theories of organizational learning all share one connection: behavioural knowledge. We would like to decipher our interpretation of behavioural knowledge by outlining the 3 C’s:

- Cognitivism

- Constructivism

- Connectivism

Cognitivism

The concept of cognitivism was founded upon the belief of identifying the mental process; internal and conscious representations of the world[12]. Cognitivist theory within the learning organization follows many similar ideas to the self-efficacy theory to enacting mastery. One of the most common learning theories within a cognitivist approach is Blooms Taxonomy developed in 1956[13]. Blooms taxonomy is a lesson in scaffolding learning and building towards mastery, in recent years, Anderson and Krathwohl have modified the original 1956 version to accommodate today’s understanding of knowledge[14]:

Figure 6: Blooms Taxonomy (Attribution: Vanderbilt Center for Teaching. Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license.)

Constructivism

While cognitivism is about identifying the mental process, constructivism is about identifying the experiential process. Constructivism is the belief that all knowledge is subjective in nature, constructed from reality, and mutually agreed upon in a consensus[15]. This pragmatic approach follows the idea that what is seen as a consensus is relatable to truth. You can see shades of the expectancy theory, as being expected to perform tasks within an organization will produce quantifiable results; however perceptions of truth differ. For example two friends see a car pass, one says the car was going 60/kmh, the other says the car was going 50/kmh. What statement is true, well one might not be able to quantify if the car is going 50 or 60, perhaps the greater truth is if the car is present. The speed of the car is subjective and up for debate, the constructive fact is that the car was present.

The subjective nature is important to understanding constructivism, in-turn find ways to deconstruct subjectivity. One way educators use constructive theory in learning organizations is to have students develop reflections on their experience[15]. The use of thoughtful reflection either written or verbal help better understanding of concepts within a learning environment. Reflections find a connection within the Blooms Taxonomy model moving up from understanding and remembering to applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating.

Connectivism

A newer form of understanding follows the concept that new forms of knowledge can be found through connections. Connectivism, according to Siemans, knowledge is created beyond the level of individuals and that knowledge through a network of connections is continuously changing[16]. It brings into the aspect of embracing a large world of knowledge and constantly inundated with the knowledge following Aldefer’s ERG theory of existing in the outside world of information, relating to outside world of information, and providing continual growth to the outside world.

The connected world relates to the idea of globalization in which we discussed in chapter 2. The modern world is interconnected and whether you are a manager within an organization, or an educator within an institute of high learning the concepts of connectivism will be needed to enhance the teaching and learning of students or employees.

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Conclusion

In this chapter we discussed the learning cycle, how individuals learn, and the concepts of epistemology. This provided a frame of mind on how to think about the many organizational learning theories presented from the epistemology of needs theory and motivation. We also made connections to how the bases of behavioural knowledge affect the organizational theories and their understanding within organizations. Let’s review our learning objectives to see how we did in this chapter:

1. Discussed the four step cycle of learning: prepare, absorb, capture, and review.

2. Compared the differences between short-term and long-term memory and how it is beneficial to use both within a learning organization.

3. Epistemology is the nature and justification of knowledge, and the scientific method of teaching follows a base understanding of teaching and learning.

4. Understanding of the ERG theory, acquired needs, and motivation theories of equity, expectancy, goal-setting and self-efficacy in relation to how we learn within organizations.

5. Understood cognitivism, constructivism, and connectivism with relation to organizations

Using these theories within management and leadership can prove beneficial to helping understand other members within you organization especially your direct reports and subordinates. With knowledge or an epistemology of different theories of organizational learning, this can help be a more self-aware and effective leader within an organization.

Unit 2 Reflection

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References

1. Stewart, I., & Maisonville, A. (n. d.). A guide for successful students. Licensed under a CreativeCommons Attribution – NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, sec. II, chapter 11. Retrieved from https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/studyprocaff/chapter/learning/

2. Bates, A. W. (2015). Teaching in a digital age: Guidelines for designing teaching and learning. Licensed under a CreativeCommons Attribution – NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, sec. 2.2. Retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/teachinginadigitalage/chapter/section-2-2-epistemology-and-why-its-important/

3. Smith, C. (2018). 14-80-415, Learning Organizations: Management and Leadership, University of Windsor.

4. Alderfer, C. (1972). Existence, relatedness, & growth: Human needs in organizational settings. New York, NY: Free Press.

5. Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Synderman, B. B. (1967). The motivation to work (2nd ed.). New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.

6. McClelland, D. C. (1965). Toward a theory of motive acquisition. American Psychologist 20(5), 321-333. Retrieved from https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1965-13693-001

7. Adams, J. S. (1963). Towards an understanding of inequity. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(5), 422-436. Retrieved from https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1964-04111-001

8. Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. Oxford, England: Wiley.

9. Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2013). Goal setting theory, 1990. In Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (eds.) New developments in goal setting and task performance (pp. 3-15). New York, NY: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

10. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215. Retrieved from https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1977-25733-001

11. Skinner, B. F. (1948). Superstition’ in the pigeon. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38(2), 168-172. Retrieved from https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1948-04299-001

12. Bates, A. W. (2015). Teaching in a digital age: Guidelines for designing teaching and learning. Licensed under a CreativeCommons Attribution – NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, sec. 2.4. Retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/teachinginadigitalage/chapter/section-2-2-epistemology-and-why-its-important/

13. Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. In Bates, A. W. (ed.). Teaching in a digital age: Guidelines for designing teaching and learning. Licensed under a CreativeCommons Attribution – NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, sec. 2.4. Retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/teachinginadigitalage/chapter/3-3-cognitivism/

14. Anderson, L. & Krathwohl, D. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. In Bates, A. W. (ed.). Teaching in a digital age: Guidelines for designing teaching and learning. Licensed under a CreativeCommons Attribution – NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, sec. 2.4. Retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/teachinginadigitalage/chapter/3-3-cognitivism/

15. Bates, A. W. (2015). Teaching in a digital age: Guidelines for designing teaching and learning. Licensed under a CreativeCommons Attribution – NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, sec. 2.5. Retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/teachinginadigitalage/chapter/section-3-4-constructivism/

16. Siemans, G. (2005). Connectivism: A theory for the digital age. In Bates, A. W. (ed.). Teaching in a digital age: Guidelines for designing teaching and learning. Licensed under a CreativeCommons Attribution – NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, sec. 2.6. Retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/teachinginadigitalage/chapter/3-6-connectivism/

VII

Chapter 7: Motivation and Job Design

An individual must be motivated to carry out a task through setting realistic goals, and reassuring the reason for a task

In this chapter we will be discussing the concepts of motivation theory from chapter 6 and apply them to job design within learning organizations. When we discuss job design, we are more focused on how one will use leadership and management techniques to enhance job enrichment within an organization, we will also focus on how to improve job characteristics within a modern learning organization.

In the second part of the chapter we will focus on the role of motivation concerning an external organizational environment and the interdisciplinary role organizations play within economic, socio-cultural, and political environments. We will then conclude on discussing how motivation can impact corporate culture within organizations, and how corporate culture can relate to learning organizations. Here are the learning objectives for this chapter:

1. Describe the need for motivation within the framework of job design.

2. Describe the characteristics of job design and what are the steps to improving job characteristics?

3. Contextualize the importance of external organizational environments and their effect on motivation within the learning organization.

4. What is corporate culture, and how do we enhance corporate culture within learning organizations?

Chapter Tips:

- Contextualize the meaning of reinforcement.

- Keep in mind societal impacts on motivation.

- How does one manage their own autonomy with motivation?

7.1 Job Design

When we discuss job design we focus on the macro approach to how a leader within an organization structures tasks for individuals. Job design follows the fundamentals of scope, depth, and specialization of the job in relation to the job simplification, rotation, enlargement, and enrichment. Motivation within job design uses the framework of a matrix which follows certain fundamentals.

Figure 1: Job Design and Motivation (Attribution: John R. Schermerhorn Jr. and Barry Wright, Management: 3rd Canadian Edition.)

What this matrix shows us is that individuals within organizations who are challenged, with low change and low turnover find more enrichment in their job. Within a learning organization such as a university for example, we see that the depth of the job in regards to planning, controlling and responsibility are not simplified, this is true given the responsibility all members of a university have to foster learning, and the massive amount of planning that goes in from services, to faculty, to administration. This challenge is what provides the motivation to complete tasks with generally low turnover within the university system. It provides more time for leaders within the learning organization to complete those challenging tasks, leading to a rewarding and enriched job.

This relates to the ideas we presented in chapter 6 on reinforcement within the job. Jobs that are designed in-depth usually carry a high level of positive reinforcement from managers to subordinates. Positive reinforcement is the action taken upon by the leader to reward someone for doing good work. Within a job design that is in-depth, subordinates are focused on attaining goals leading to further positive reinforcement. There are two positive reinforcement strategies commonly used:

- Contingent Reinforcement

- Immediate Reinforcement

Contingent reinforcement is used only when desired behaviour is exhibited, this relates to a team reaching a quarterly goal, or at the end of the day members of a team successfully worked within the mission, vision, and values of the organization. Immediate reinforcement is in the name, immediate, and relates to the positive feedback right after an action, more common after a good idea during a round table discussion, or right after a phone call closing a deal with a prospective client. Regardless of the reinforcement strategy used there is a specific set of guidelines required to provide positive reinforcement to colleagues within an organization:

- Clearly identify desired work behaviours.

- Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards.

- Inform everyone what must be done to get rewards.

- Follow the rules of immediate and contingent reinforcement (as in: don’t do it just one time and not the other times).

Reinforcement can be a very beneficial tool in helping your initial job design and desired leadership outcomes for your organization. As we move forward in the chapter we will move deeper within the job characteristics of simplification, rotation, enlargement, and enrichment. Within those characteristics we will outline how they can be used within an organization.

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7.2 Job Design Characteristics

We briefly described characteristics of job design in relation to their fundamentals of scope, depth and specialization. We will look deeper into the characteristics of job design and apply its function within the learning organization. With this, we hope to build the characteristics to a higher order level of understanding.

Job Simplification

Job simplification is the first level of job characteristics given its narrow scope in relation to job design. Job simplification is the standardizing of work procedures and employing people in well-defined and highly specialized tasks. Automation could be an example of this, as the different forms of automation within organizations can make work easier, but does not expand on ones level to engage in the job. Relating to the learning organization, automation has helped in many ways to enhance how individuals learn and obtain new knowledge, however, this can lead to boredom and alienation, especially working in a team. The aspects of boredom and alienation can be detrimental to an organization causing a higher level of absenteeism and turnover[1].

Job Rotation

Moving to the second level of job design characteristics, we have more involvement from both managers and subordinates. Job rotation is the increase in task variety by periodically shifting workers between jobs. When you move individuals to different areas within the organization they develop new skills, keep work fresh, and gain a more robust understanding of the organization as a whole. If we look at a university institution, it is uncommon for teachers to instruct different classes outside of the ones they have taught for a long time. In many ways having members of a faculty (i.e. political science) switch between different classes can get a feel of a learner’s different philosophies and inspirations. For example you can get two different types of learners and styles when you move from an Introduction to Canadian Politics class to a Foreign Policy of the United States class; not to mention it develops your own robust education leadership style when teaching different learners.

Job Enlargement

This next step uses the aspect of condensing for the sake of growing. Job enlargement is the increase of task variety by combining two or more tasks that were previously assigned to different workers. Within a learning organization this can be explained as one person working on research about internationalization, and another is working on the admission rates of international students within the university. An administrator or the two individuals might combine their work as their research is closely related. This is a good way to bring in a level of rotation and collaboration within the jobs presented, however, it is important that the jobs are related, if unrelated it can cause confusion and stagnation in the completing of goals.

Job Enrichment

The fourth and final level is looking deeply at the job design. Job enrichment is the practice of expanding job content through job depth to create more opportunities for satisfaction. Job enrichment follows the Herzberg two-factor theory presented in chapter 6; when you have enrichment, you look inwards towards the job and find the factors that make the job appealing (satisfier factors) and what may make the job unappealing to individuals (hygiene factors). When we relate this to a learning organization we find that leaders when fostering learning want to gain deeper learning from their subordinates. Some focuses might be on:

- The reason or philosophy behind the learning activity

- Specified learning outcomes

- Individual moderator variables (correlation between continuous interaction[2])

These levels all relate to how a leader or a manager attempts to improve job characteristics. Have it be through simplification or enrichment the goal for a leader is to increase productivity, lower turnover, and have subordinates ready and willing to work. Hackman and Oldham developed a model that finds a balance between the characteristics to improve job performance[3].

Figure 2: Improving Job Characteristics. (Attribution: J. R. Hackman & G. R. Oldham, Work Redesign, 1980)

Review Questions:

1. What are the differences between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement?

2. Describe the characteristics of job simplification, rotation, enlargement, and enrichment?

7.3 External Organization Environment

When making sense of the external environment it is important that all organizations, are formed to achieve organizational goals. When achieving organizational goals, most look outside of their own walls to what is called the external environment. The external environment or general environment involves outside factors which impact the operation of the organization; in turn, causing the organization to respond and react in order to maintain[4]. Figure 3 shows the some of the external environments that are present within organizations and how they adjust in external environments.

Figure 3: Macro Forces and Environments (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC-BY 4.0 license)

When we look at a modern organization and its place in the world we look at its impact on the global market. Economic forces are forces that pertain to an organizations role within its national or global economy. Overall, the impact of globalization in general have rendered positive effects, however rates of household economy in 25 advanced economy countries have dropped or remained stagnated at a rate of two-thirds[4]. One can point to two defining trends that have an adverse effect on the economy and are key characteristics in the external organization environment.

Technological Forces

Government and Political Forces

·         If an organization can effectively enhance their usage of technology this can render a substantial competitive advantage[4].

·         In a modern economy, foreign policy and diplomacy have a big effect on how organizations operate in a global marketplace.

Outside the economy, organizational impact can have an effect on the people not only inside the organization, but outside. Socio-cultural forces include the values, beliefs, customs and traditions of different people in regards to race, religion, gender and other socio-cultural backgrounds[4]. Within learning organizations, we find that social-cultural forces have rendered quite an impact given the diversity of learning organizations in recent years. Have it be age, religion, race, gender or sexuality, leaders within learning organizations will have to be cognizant of the socio-cultural forces that effect and are identified within organizations.

The impact of climate change have a large impact on organizations. Natural disasters and human induced problems are issues that relate to our natural environment including high-impact storms and the rise of CO2 emissions[4]. Learning organizations have been more cognizant as of late about the effects of climate change and are aware of the effect that humans have caused to the rapid temperature change. As leaders it is important to be interdisciplinary in these areas so that a wealth of knowledge can be presented to your fellow learners.

Review Questions:

1. What are the five macro forces of organizational environments? What are their characteristics?

2. What are the impacts of socio-cultural forces within organizations?

3. What interdisciplinary practices can be used in the organizational environment?

7.4 Corporate Culture

Image from: https://www.netclipart.com/isee/owiiTT_culture-clipart-corporate-culture-social-network-clipart/

When looking at all the factors that make up an organizations behaviour, one must look at an organizations corporate culture. Corporate culture focuses on the values of an organization, and relates to the socio-environmental characteristics of an organization; Peter Drucker used the famous phrase in regards to corporate culture that “culture eats strategy for breakfast”[5]. Corporate culture is influential as it acts in a trickle-down manner; essentially culture starts from the top and is found as it trickles down through subordinates of the organization. In many ways corporate culture serves two functions within the organizational system[6]:

- Adapt and integrate to its external environment

- Creates internal unity and cohesiveness to achieve goals

In many ways corporate culture creates a standard towards how a particular organization runs. A positive corporate culture has leaders that want subordinates to work within the organization, provide autonomy, and be involved with the decision making processes. This is found in the Southwestern United States based burger chain In-N-Out Burger which was named one of the top companies in the world by Glassdoor[7]. On the other side, an organization can promote vindictiveness, and unethical financial practices similar to what Enron did in the late 90’s and early 2000’s[8] (see photo of Jeffrey Skilling; chapter 5).

Corporate culture in many ways can seem ambiguous, therefore we ask how does one quantify corporate culture? One strategy that has been used frequently in studying this is the Competing Values Framework (CVF) (Figure 4)[9]. Much like the Johari Window does for an individual’s self-awareness, the CVF allows insight into a corporation’s self-awareness and development of culture.

Figure 4: Competing Values Framework. (Attribution: K. Cameron and R. Quinn, 1999. Diagnosing and Changing Organizational Culture, Addison-Wesley, p. 32.)

When relating corporate cultures to learning organizations, we see similar aspects found to how culture is effective within the walls of the organization. Of course, the culture from head administrators trickles down to the department heads, which trickles down to the faculty in an institute of higher learning. However, even with a hierarchical structure in place for task delegation, faculty, for example, have a great deal of autonomy in how they decipher and transmit learning to students. The ability to be autonomous and provide a learning structure that works for educator and student, promotes a healthy work environment. In many ways the goal of fostering learning and knowledge is not only the goal of the teachers inside of a learning organization, it is a goal all the way to the top of the administration, given the role of education and its impact on future generations who enter the workforce and into society.

Activity: Case Study

- Read the case study carefully.

- Answer the question in the text box at the bottom.

- If applicable, work with a partner or a small group to get different viewpoints of the case study.

- Case Study comes from: David A. Garvin, Harvard Business Review URL: https://hbr.org/2013/11/case-study-the-costs-and-benefits-of-a-strong-culture

Case Study: The Cost and Benefits of a Strong Culture
“How long is this list of escapees?” Kumar Chandra asked as he pointed at the slide on the screen. He was the head of operations at Parivar, a midsize Chennai-based IT services company.

Everyone in the room chuckled, except for Indira Pandit, vice president of HR. Nearly 100 employees had given notice in recent weeks.

“We’re losing them faster than your people can bring them in,” she said, turning to Vikram Srinivasan, the head of recruiting. “Our turnover rate is up to 35%.”

(Editor’s Note: This fictionalized case study will appear in a forthcoming issue of Harvard Business Review, along with commentary from experts and readers. If you’d like your comment to be considered for publication, please be sure to include your full name, company or university affiliation, and e-mail address.)

Vikram shook his head. “This isn’t our problem. It’s the Indian labor market. And it may not even be a bad thing. Some studies show that the more frequently employees move around within an industry, the more innovative it becomes.”

Indira gave him a skeptical look.

“This is to be expected, Indira, especially now that we’re rising above the second tier,” he argued.

This time only Kumar laughed, and Indira knew why. Sure, Parivar was growing — in revenue, profitability, and reputation — but it was still much smaller than companies like Infosys, HCL, and other leading global providers of low- to midrange business-process outsourcing services. In the past decade, Parivar’s charismatic CEO Sudhir Gupta had saved the organization from bankruptcy and made it an industry success story — but it was hardly in the first tier.

“I need to present these numbers to Sudhir at the end of the week, and I can’t do that without a theory on what’s happening and a solution to propose. That’s why I called this meeting,” said Indira.

“What about the ‘People Support’ idea that came up in the Future Vision exercise?” Vikram asked. Parivar had just finished its annual innovation process. Employees from all over the company — particularly new and young ones — were encouraged to join senior leaders in brainstorming and design sessions focused on how the firm could reach its goals for the year. This event, a hallmark of Parivar’s inclusive culture, was meant to foster collaboration and an entrepreneurial spirit. One proposal that had garnered attention was the creation of a new function whose sole purpose would be to support Parivar’s employees by hearing their grievances and figuring out solutions.

“I, for one, love the ‘People Support’ idea,” Vikram added. “It emphasizes Sudhir’s philosophy of genuine caring for our people.”

“It sounds genuinely expensive to me,” said Kumar. Indira loved his pragmatism.

“Cost aside, I’m not sure that’s the direction we want to take.” She pointed at the screen. “These people have told us that Sudhir’s ‘love culture’ — our attentiveness to both personal and professional matters —  isn’t so alluring anymore. They don’t necessarily want to feel like part of a family at work.”

“Come on,” Vikram said. “That’s our biggest selling point. Recruits love that they won’t be just a cog in the machine, that our company and its managers — Sudhir included — will listen to them. That everyone at Parivar matters.”

“That expectation may attract them, but it’s not keeping them here, especially when competitors offer a 30% pay raise,” Indira countered. “It’s what we’re hearing in the exit interviews.”

Vikram was clearly not convinced: “We need to go bigger. We should put our money where our mouth is with the People Support function, show that we’re 100% committed to our culture of inclusion. That’s the best way to reverse the trend.”

Big Brotherly Love

Amal, an associate in his twenties, had clearly prepared for his exit interview with Indira. He was checking off items on a handwritten list.

“Everyone says I’ll hate it at Wipro, that it’s too rigid there. But it’s Wipro! How can I refuse?”

“Yes, I’ve heard they have the same high expectations we do, but it’s more process-driven, far less personal. Here you get more attention from the top.”

Amal smirked. “Yes, if you’re one of Sudhir’s clan.”

“What do you mean?” Indira asked.

“Don’t get me wrong. Parivar promised access to senior executives, and I got it. But Sudhir doesn’t swing by the office, put his legs up, and chat with just anyone. There’s an ‘in’ crowd. Only his favorites get that family-like attention. I guess it’s understandable — one man can only do so much. But if I’m not seeing him or other top people, I’m just stuck at a company that wants to be overinvolved in my life.”

“This People Support idea, for instance,” he said, pointing to the last item on his list. He seemed to be on a roll, so Indira just listened. “I heard about it from my friend who was in that Future Vision group. You have to admit it feels a bit like Big Brother. A whole group of managers dedicated to walking around and asking about our problems? We don’t need more people to talk to. We need more money.” He sat back in his chair, satisfied.

“Thank you for being so candid,” Indira said. “This really is helpful, and we wish you the best of luck.”

A few minutes later, Amal’s manager poked his head into Indira’s office. “Did you get an earful?” he asked.

“I sure did,” Indira said, gesturing for him to come in. “I think he’ll be happy at Wipro — it seems more his speed.”

“You should know that Amal is an outlier. Most people on my team are not like him. They love our company culture.”

Thinking about her long list of “escapees,” Indira wondered whether that was really true.

A New Best Practice?

Sudhir’s office, where he regularly held big meetings, was crowded with inviting, comfortable couches. Indira scanned the room as people settled in. It was a typical gathering: most of Parivar’s senior leaders, including Vikram and Kumar, and a handful of younger employees.

“I’ve asked Nisha to tell us more about the People Support idea,” Sudhir announced. “It’s the brainchild of her Future Vision team. Ready, Nisha?”

Nisha, who looked to be fresh out of business school, began her slide presentation, describing how the new function would work. She included a scenario: An employee is worried about his future with the company because he has been given a time-consuming project that will involve working late, compromising his ability to look after a sick mother in the evening. Aware of the People Support function, he seeks out one of its designated “listeners,” as they would be called, and explains his dilemma. The listener helps him negotiate an arrangement with his boss that allows him not to stay late every night. In Nisha’s last slide, all the characters — the employee, the boss, the listener, and the sick mother — are smiling.

Everyone in the audience clapped, and Sudhir congratulated Nisha.  ”This is what I love about coming to work every day: Fresh ideas from smart, young people.”

Not surprisingly, Kumar was the first with questions: How much would the function cost? How would it scale up as the company grew? Who would manage it? Nisha attempted to provide answers, but Sudhir interrupted before she got very far. “We must still work some things out, of course, and those all are legitimate concerns. But I think this would be money well spent.”

Kumar wasn’t satisfied. “OK, so we won’t discuss specifics today, but what about our broader plans for growth? Will all this family stuff be appropriate outside India, when we expand to the UK and the U.S.?”

“That’s also an important issue to explore. But people everywhere want their company to care about them and their lives,” Sudhir said, indicating with a glance at Kumar that the interrogation should cease. “Indira, do you have any questions? This obviously falls into your arena.”

Indira shared Kumar’s concerns and more. But she wanted to ask something new. “Nisha, thank you for this thoughtful presentation. I was wondering if you’ve considered how the listeners will be evaluated. How will we know if they’re performing well?”

“Retention numbers,” Nisha said. “The lower our turnover rate, the better the listeners are doing.”

Indira contemplated the complexity of evaluating anyone on the basis of turnover, given the volatility in the labor market. She felt queasy thinking about it and dreaded delivering the most recent attrition numbers to Sudhir.

Vikram piped up to ask whether any other companies in India or elsewhere had tried a similar program or if Parivar would lead the way.

“As far as we know — and Nisha has researched it — no other company has done this before. Sure, HCL has its employee-first culture, but this is about truly understanding and meeting our people’s needs. Nisha and I were talking earlier about how someday this might become a best practice for all of India, perhaps beyond.”

Later, as everyone was filing out, Sudhir pulled Indira aside. “Thank you for going easy on Nisha. We want to encourage young people like her to put forward bold ideas. But of course I want your honest opinion. We’re meeting on Friday, yes? You had something for me?”

Honest Skepticism

Indira took the elevator to the fourth floor. She hoped her colleague and business school friend, Amrita, would be in her office.

“Thank God you’re not busy,” she joked, finding Amrita with her head down at her desk. The two women were always busy, but they had an open-door policy for each other.

Indira explained about the meeting in Sudhir’s office, the People Support function, the exit interview with Amal, and the horrible turnover numbers.

“So I’m skeptical of this People Support idea because I’m not sure we can really nurture Sudhir’s love culture across an organization that’s growing so fast. It’s one thing as a philosophy of how he interacts with people, but building processes and formal management structures around it is a whole different story.”

“That’s a tough message to deliver to someone who has turned the company around, tripled revenue, and quintupled profits with that culture at the center,” Amrita acknowledged. “I’m sure he thinks this is solving the problem of his limited capacity.”

“But can you formalize a culture as distinctive as ours into processes and roles?” Indira wondered honestly. “Will this People Support function even work? And if it does, won’t it alienate more employees like Amal? What if it worsens our turnover problem instead of fixing it? If we want to expand to Europe and the U.S., don’t we need to be less like a cult?”

Amrita laughed. “You know what Sudhir likes to say: ‘Cult is part of culture.’ But it’s not your style to just say what he wants to hear, Indira. If you think People Support is a bad idea, tell him. He’ll take your advice seriously.”

Indira knew she had more power than most HR heads. Sudhir wanted to run a humane company, and that meant giving her a say on big issues.

“I plan to be honest with him,” Indira replied. “But another thing Sudhir always says is, ‘Don’t come to me with a problem; come with a solution.’ If Vikram and Nisha are right, People Support could be just the edge we need against the likes of Wipro and Infosys, a way to retain our people and win new recruits. What if this helps us break into the top tier?”

“Do you really think it will, Indira?”

“I’m not sure, and I don’t have any better ideas right now.”

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/educationleadershipmanagement/?p=367

Conclusion

Throughout this chapter we took a deep-dive into how an organization uses job design as a motivating tool for employees, we also learned how one substantiates a positive space in the external environment and their internal environment through the use of corporate culture. How did we do with our learning objectives?

1. Job design follows the fundamentals of scope, depth, and specialization of the job in relation to job characteristics and the motivation matrix.

2. Job simplification, rotation, enlargement, and enrichment are used in order to reach a higher organizational level and increase productivity.

3. Future organizations will need to relate more to the outside world by understanding the interdisciplinary world of economic, technological, government, socio-cultural, and natural forces.

4. Corporate culture focuses on the values of an organization, and within learning organizations the concept of autonomy is important for a positive corporate culture.

We can use the concepts of job design as we move to our next chapter on decision-making. When we discuss how one makes decisions within an organization, we can use the factors of working in an external environment and corporate culture to help develop a framework for the most effective decisions to take place in organizations.

References

1. Schermerhorn, J. R., & Wright, B. (2014). Management: Third Canadian Edition. Toronto, Ontario: John Wiley & Sons Canada.

2. Fritz, M. S., & Arthur, A. M. (2017). Moderator variables. Oxford Research Encyclopedias, Psychology. Retrieved from https://oxfordre.com/psychology/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.001.0001/acrefore-9780190236557-e-86

3. Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, J. R. (1980). Work redesign. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.

4. Openstax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:nGufNJoq@6/4-1-The-Organization-s-External-Environment

5. Hyken, S. (2015, December 5). Drucker said ‘culture eats strategy for breakfast’ and Enterprise rent-a-car proves it. Forbes. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/shephyken/2015/12/05/drucker-said-culture-eats-strategy-for-breakfast-and-enterprise-rent-a-car-proves-it/#20e44ca92749

6. Openstax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:49GI9zLH@6/4-5-Corporate-Cultures

7. Economy, P. (n. d.). Glassdoor just announced the 100 best places to work for 2019 (is your company on the list?). Inc.com, Manuseto Ventures. Retrieved from https://www.inc.com/peter-economy/glassdoor-just-announced-100-best-places-to-work-for-2019-is-your-company-on-list.html

8. Segal, T. (2019, May 29). Enron scandal: The fall of a wall street darling. Investopedia. Retrieved from https://www.investopedia.com/updates/enron-scandal-summary/

9. Hartnell, C. A., Ou, A. Y., & Kinicki, A. (2011). Organizational culture and organizational effectiveness: A meta-analytic investigation of the competing values framework’s theoretical suppositions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(4), 677-694. Retrieved from https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-00494-001

VIII

Chapter 8: Decision-Making

“So many decisions so little time”. Decision making is an important aspect to leadership and management, not only making the decision but living with the outcome.

As a leader within a learning organization, a large portion of your actions stem from decisions you make on a specific situation. Being decisive can be a challenging feat for some people, and come naturally for others. One of the main issues with decision-making, is not simply making the decision, but living with the consequences. In this chapter we will gain a general overview of decision-making, styles of decision-making, effective decision-making, and making decisions as a group.

Throughout this chapter, many topics will be presented that will help you develop your decision-making ability and to understand the importance that decision-making has on a successful learning organization. Here are the learning objectives for this chapter:

1. Define what decision-making is and the people it affects.

2. Clearly identify the difference between the right answer and the ethical answer.

3. Identify the decision-making styles, and critique the issues in managerial decision-making.

4. Outline and critique some of the challenges to effective decision-making.

5. Compare and contrast how teamwork is either beneficial or detrimental to decision-making.

Chapter Tips:

- How does decision making impact your personal life?

- How does being a rational agent help someone make the right decision?

- Think of the impact groups have on decision making.

8.1 Overview of Decision-Making

Whether you are the CEO of a large multi-national corporation, a small-business owner, or even an administrator inside of an institution of higher learning, your day at some point will consist of making decisions that have an effect on the organization. Decision-making is the action of thinking through a process and coming to a consensus either personal, or collaborative, and following through with that action. One of the key variables in decision-making within an organization are the stakeholders; which are the individuals or groups that are affected by the organization (i.e. employees, vendors, customers, and shareholders)[1].

One thing to be aware of as a leader within an organization is that decision-making is a process, processing your decisions can help you make the right decision relevant for the problem that is presented, if you are too rash in your decision-making, it could render negative consequences. For example, if productivity is low within your administration or organization, and the first action is to fire everyone in the office; that is a rash decision that hinders the individuals and the organization as a whole. Here is an effective five step process to effective decision making[2].

Figure 1: Decision-Making Process. (John R. Schermerhorn Jr. and Barry Wright, Management: 3rd Canadian Edition.)

Step 3 offers an interesting look in the decision making process, as an ethical dilemma can be presented at this time. One of the main aspects managers have a difficult time understanding is the difference between making the correct decision and making the ethical decision. When managers or leaders make decisions, it usually does not fall on the yes or no binary, or one correct answer, this brings in the issue of making the best decision out of a set of good options, or minimize harm though a set of bad options. This is where ethical decision making comes into play, as managers we all make impactful decisions during the day, month or year within an organization, and as managers we must make an impact on how our decisions affect our stakeholders[3]. Therefore, the execution of ethical action in decision making should be an overarching method to decision making.

The Right Correct Answer?

The Right Ethical Answer?

•Finding the best answer out of a set of options

•Often the correct answer does not apply to everyone.

•Sometimes it is not clear what the best answer is.

•Finding the best positive impact in our answers.

•Being cognizant that your answer will have an effect on the organization.

•Through strong ethical consideration, a viable choice may emerge.

As we move forward in this chapter we will focus on some of the decision making styles that are found within organizations. As we move forward and you work through decision making exercises, remain cognizant of the ethical implications and how decisions affect stakeholders within your organization.

Review Questions:

1. What is the definition of decision-making? And what are stakeholders?

2. What are the five steps of the decision-making process?

3. What is the difference between the right answer and the ethical answer?

8.2 Decision-Making Styles

Decision-making can come in many forms, it usually depends on the manager. We discussed managerial theories in Chapter 2, feel free to look back and refresh yourself on the different classical and contemporary theories present in managerial styles. In this context there are managerial decisions that are found within organizations:

- Structured Problems – familiar, straightforward, and clear with respect to information needs. This can be closely related to a bureaucratic or scientific management theory.

- Unstructured Problems – New or unusual situations full of ambiguities and information disfluencies. With ambiguity comes an understanding either substantiated or unsubstantiated and relates closely to a behavioural theory.

- Crisis Decisions – An unexpected problem that can lead to disaster if not resolved quickly and appropriately. In a crisis, perhaps a more bureaucratic, autocratic approach will be needed to alleviate harms quickly and efficiently.

Depending on the situation, the style will change based on the desired outcomes. With structured problems, expert and referent power may be the best course of action and the ability to control the situation when the problems are structured or in a crisis. However, if the problem is ambiguous a more collaborative nature would work best, perhaps along the lines in-depth thinking and challenging skeptical notions. Regardless of the approach, here is an in-depth guide to the different decision-making styles, characteristics, buzzwords, and tips.

Description

Typical Characteristics

Buzzwords

Tips

Charismatics

Experience high level of emotion about a new idea but will ultimately rely on a balanced set of information to come to a conclusion.

Enthusiastic, captivating, talkative, dominant.

Results, proven, actions, easy, clear, focus

Use straightforward arguments and emphasize bottom-line results. Use visual aids.

Thinkers

Can be the toughest to persuade. Impressed with arguments supported by data. Can be risk averse and slow to make a decision.

Cerebral, intelligent, logical, academic.

Quality, academic, think, numbers, intelligent, plan, expert, proof.

Offer plenty of data and analyses to support your position.

Skeptics

Tend to be highly suspicious of every data point presented, especially any information that challenges their worldview. They often have an aggressive, combative style.

Demanding, disruptive, disagreeable, rebellious

Feel, grasp, power, action, suspect, trust, demand, disrupts

Line up endorsement from people the decision-maker trusts.

Followers

Make decisions based on how they’ve made similar choices in the past, or on how other trusted individuals have made them.

Responsible, cautious, brand-driven, bargain-cautious.

Innovate, expedite, expertise.

Deliver evidence that the risk is low while playing up how your proposal will be trailblazing.

Controllers

Detest uncertainty and ambiguity, and will focus on the pure facts and analytics of an argument.

Logical, unemotional, sensible, detail-oriented, accurate, analytical.

Details, facts, reason, logic, power, handle, grab.

Present a series of highly structured arguments over time.

Figure 2: Decision-Making Styles. (Attribtion: Clayton Smith, 14-80-415, Learning Organizations: Management and Leadership, University of Windsor.)

Another decision-making style that is effective is the role of directing or delegating. Delegating is the use of other individuals in a collaborative nature to handle tasks that have initially been brought to yourself. Say you are a middle-manager at a hotel, your boss asks you to work on hiring two new people, and finish the priority check-ins for the evening shift. One might say that the task of hiring two new staff-members for the operation will be imperative and should be started right away, however the priority check-in is also important, but you have a competent front desk agent available. In this case, you would delegate the priority check-in to the front desk agent which frees you up to start the hiring process.

Delegation is important to finding the right decisions within the organization. With delegating it is important that your organization has these two factors present:

- Experience and knowledge of tasks

- Autonomy and accountability of your subordinates

These factors are important, because in order to delegate you must return to the decision-making process and oversee any challenges one might have when doing a task that you delegated. In addition, you must also provide a sense of freedom and autonomy to your subordinates to carry out a task. Your staff must be provided freedom and be accountable for their actions so that they can share responsibility for the success or failure of the task. This ties into the ability to direct individuals as Kimani outlines four components of directing[4].

Figure 3: Components of Directing. (Attribution:Gerald Kimani, Educational Management).

Activity: Pitching For Better

Source: Williams, G., and Miller, R. (2002). Change the way you persuade. Harvard Business Review, 80, 64-73.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/educationleadershipmanagement/?p=375

8.3 Challenges to Effective Decision Making

The decision making process can pose interesting challenges to leaders. Within the world of organizations, challenges are commonly referred to barriers in decision-making or just barriers. We have outlined six distinct barriers and if they can be overcome[5].

- Bounded Rationality

- Escalation of Commitment

- Time Constraints

- Uncertainty

- Biases

- Conflict

When decisions are made within organizations, can we assume that all decisions are all rational in nature? Not necessarily, as within leadership there are issues where we cannot grasp the problem or find the right solution. Bounded rationality is the notion that challenging of complex issues that we as leaders cannot fully grasp, we are unable to be rational about the situation and be incapable of understanding an alternative[5]. Within learning organizations, an educator would like to believe they can learn everything and everything, at times there is no comprehension of a certain aspect of learning, thus becoming a victim of bounded rationality. This can lead to incorrect decisions being made without all the information, or abandon an issue all together, and both produce an incomplete outcome. Overcoming bounded rationality is difficult given the old adage ‘you learn something new every day’, with that ideal, you are never fully knowledgeable. Therefore, as a leader it would be best not to work against bounded rationality but with bounded rationality, understanding its place along continual learning.

In decision-making it can be difficult to make a tough decision, even more difficult living with the decision that is made when that decision doesn’t pan out. Escalation of commitment is the idea that leaders and managers remain committed to a poor decision, or find it hard to remove ourselves from a poor decision rationally[5]. It is hard as a leader to take ‘being wrong’ with a decision but it is a learning process. In modern learning organizations, mistakes, critiquing, and revising are all aspects of a divergent learning process, therefore, it is fine that a poor decision is made, but tools are in place to help a learner develop new skills to overcome past mistakes, eventually removing the challenge of escalation.

When we discuss time constraints we are not necessarily discussing time management. A manager could have managed their time well, but outside circumstances have caused an immediacy for a decision to be made. Time constraints are when there is little time available to collect information with rationality and make an effective decision[5]. When we use the example of a university wanting to unveil a new web tool for student, other organizations have completed the process, so you are pressed for time and rush the web tool out without grasping all of the information necessary; the web tool eventually releases with numerous bugs and has to be fixed after initial release. Although some instances are out of a leaders control, effective planning, forecasting, and time management can be used to alleviate time constraints.

In your everyday life, are you 100% sure of every decision that you make. If your answer is no, do not worry, effective leaders and managers are not always 100% sure of every decision they make either. Uncertainty is the act of not knowing an outcome until said outcome has transpired[5] and is tied in our belief that we only envision an outcome we actually do not see it. Within a learning organization, it is uncertain how we see learning help prospective learners, as leaders within learning organizations we can only follow a methodology that works best for the learner so they can absorb content. We can envision a desired outcome, but our uncertainty can only see the outcome after the decision has transpired.

You may be uncertain on which track to choose when making a decision, however it is important to stick to your track and see the process through. Image from https://www.anao.gov.au/work/performance-audit/management-inland-rail-pre-construction-program

One of the most common errors that leaders and managers make is trusting a poor decision based on preconceived notions. Biases, in regards to decisions, follow the notion that the decision we make is closely tied to our inherent beliefs and world view; in addition, it enhances beliefs that are similar to our own beliefs[5]. We usually tend to make decisions and stick to decisions that are our own, the idea that our initial beliefs are given more attention and pay less attention to beliefs outside of our world view is called confirmation bias[5]. As leaders our own confirmation can have an impact on how we work within organizations, and have an adverse effect on people who do not follow our precise worldview. One way to avoid bias is to be knowledgeable and empathetic about a contrary idea, although you may make a decision based on a personal worldview, you are acknowledging it is coming from a form of bias, and can work with incorporating contrary views for a more collaborative decision-making process.

Within an organization, leaders and managers should not be shy of turbulent issues. Perhaps not physically, or overtly verbally, but situations can be tense depending on the context. Conflict can be broken down into two areas within an organization:

- Process Conflict – conflict about the best way to find a solution, while others look for other options for a superior solution[5].

- Relationship Conflict – conflict between individuals that is more personal, involving attacks on character rather than ideas[5].

Regardless of the conflict, it is best to alleviate conflict at the onset. For example if there is a conflict between two leaders within an organization, a civil sit down and discussion about worldviews, ideology, and best practices within a workplace can lead to a consensus in some areas and maybe lead to a highly effective decision to be made that makes a positive effect on an organization.

Within learning organizations, leaders and managers are constantly faced with barriers in their decision-making have it be personal indifference, or organizational indifference. When faced with barriers, the use of expert power (Chapter 3) can be an effective tool to help avoid barriers, being knowledgeable about a variety of situations can be beneficial for members to hear, in addition, acknowledging you are not the beacon of knowledge, and that your decisions may have biases or be uncertain, leading to a holistic discussion and a collaborative decision so that everyone is on-board with the decision and takes on a form of accountability.

Activity: Interview Analysis

- Read the interview

- Analyze and construct some themes from the interview.

- Formulate an idea from the interview that reflects effective decision-making

- Article source: Morse, G. (2016). Designing a bias-free organization, The Harvard Business Review, July-August. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2016/07/designing-a-bias-free-organization

Designing a Bias-Free Organization
Iris Bohnet thinks firms are wasting their money on diversity training. The problem is, most programs just don’t work. Rather than run more workshops or try to eradicate the biases that cause discrimination, she says, companies need to redesign their processes to prevent biased choices in the first place.

Bohnet directs the Women and Public Policy Program at the Harvard Kennedy School and cochairs its Behavioral Insights Group. Her new book, What Works, describes how simple changes—from eliminating the practice of sharing self-evaluations to rewarding office volunteerism—can reduce the biased behaviors that undermine organizational performance. In this edited interview with HBR senior editor Gardiner Morse, Bohnet describes how behavioral design can neutralize our biases and unleash untapped talent.

HBR: Organizations put a huge amount of effort into improving diversity and equality but are still falling short. Are they doing the wrong things, not trying hard enough, or both?
Bohnet: There is some of each going on. Frankly, right now I am most concerned with companies that want to do the right thing but don’t know how to get there, or worse, throw money at the problem without its making much of a difference. Many U.S. corporations, for example, conduct diversity training programs without ever measuring whether they work. My colleague Frank Dobbin at Harvard and many others have done excellent research on the effectiveness of these programs, and unfortunately it looks like they largely don’t change attitudes, let alone behavior. (See “Why Diversity Programs Fail” by Frank Dobbin.) I encourage anyone who thinks they have a program that works to actually evaluate and document its impact. This would be a huge service. I’m a bit on a mission to convince corporations, NGOs, and government agencies to bring the same rigor they apply to their financial decision making and marketing strategies to their people management. Marketers have been running A/B tests for a long time, measuring what works and what doesn’t. HR departments should be doing the same.

What would a diversity evaluation look like?
There’s a great classroom experiment that’s a good model. John Dovidio and his colleagues at Yale evaluated the effect of an antibias training program on first and second graders in 61 classrooms. About half the classrooms were randomly assigned to get four weeks of sessions on gender, race, and body type with the goal of making the children more accepting of others who were different from them. The other half didn’t get the training. The program had virtually no impact on the children’s willingness to share or play with others. This doesn’t mean you can’t ever teach kids to be more accepting—just that improving people’s inclination to be inclusive is incredibly hard. We need to keep collecting data to learn what works best.
So the point for corporations is to adopt this same methodology for any program they try. Offer the training to a randomly selected group of employees and compare their behaviors afterward with a control group. Of course, this would also mean defining success beforehand. For diversity training programs to go beyond just checking the box, organizations have to be serious about what they want to change and how they plan to evaluate whether their change program worked.

Diversity training programs largely don’t change attitudes, let alone behavior.

What does behavioral science tell us about what to do, aside from measuring success?
Start by accepting that our minds are stubborn beasts. It’s very hard to eliminate our biases, but we can design organizations to make it easier for our biased minds to get things right. HBR readers may know the story about how orchestras began using blind auditions in the 1970s. It’s a great example of behavioral design that makes it easier to do the unbiased thing. The issue was that fewer than 10% of players in major U.S. orchestras were women. Why was that? Not because women are worse musicians than men but because they were perceived that way by auditioners. So orchestras started having musicians audition behind a curtain, making gender invisible. My Harvard colleague Claudia Goldin and Cecilia Rouse of Princeton showed that this simple change played an important role in increasing the fraction of women in orchestras to almost 40% today. Note that this didn’t result from changing mindsets. In fact, some of the most famous orchestra directors at the time were convinced that they didn’t need curtains because they, of all people, certainly focused on the quality of the music and not whether somebody looked the part. The evidence told a different story.

So this is good news. Behavioral design works.
Yes, it does. The curtains made it easier for the directors to detect talent, independent of what it looked like. On the one hand, I find it liberating to know that bias affects everyone, regardless of their awareness and good intentions. This work is not about pointing fingers at bad people. On the other hand, it is of course also depressing that even those of us who are committed to equality and promoting diversity fall prey to these biases. I am one of those people. When I took my baby boy to a Harvard day care center for the first time a few years back, one of the first teachers I saw was a man. I wanted to turn and run. This man didn’t conform to my expectations of what a preschool teacher looked like. Of course, he turned out to be a wonderful caregiver who later became a trusted babysitter at our house—but I couldn’t help my initial gut reaction. I was sexist for only a few seconds, but it bothers me to this day. Seeing is believing. That is, we need to actually see counterstereotypical examples if we are to change our minds. Until we see more male kindergarten teachers or female engineers, we need behavioral designs to make it easier for our biased minds to get things right and break the link between our gut reactions and our actions.

What are examples of good behavioral design in organizations?
Well, let’s look at recruitment and talent management, where biases are rampant. You can’t easily put job candidates behind a curtain, but you can do a version of that with software. I am a big fan of tools such as Applied, GapJumpers, and Unitive that allow employers to blind themselves to applicants’ demographic characteristics. The software allows hiring managers to strip age, gender, educational and socioeconomic background, and other information out of résumés so they can focus on talent only. There’s also a robust literature on how to take bias out of the interview process, which boils down to this: Stop going with your gut. Those unstructured interviews where managers think they’re getting a feel for a candidate’s fit or potential are basically a waste of time. Use structured interviews where every candidate gets the same questions in the same order, and score their answers in order in real time. You should also be thinking about how your recruitment approach can skew who even applies. For instance, you should scrutinize your job ads for language that unconsciously discourages either men or women from applying. A school interested in attracting the best teachers, for instance, should avoid characterizing the ideal candidate as “nurturing” or “supportive” in the ad copy, because research shows that can discourage men from applying. Likewise, a firm that wants to attract men and women equally should avoid describing the preferred candidate as “competitive” or “assertive,” as research finds that those characterizations can discourage female applicants. The point is that if you want to attract the best candidates and access 100% of the talent pool, start by being conscious about the recruitment language you use.

What about once you’ve hired someone? How do you design around managers’ biases then?
The same principle applies: Do whatever you can to take instinct out of consideration and rely on hard data. That means, for instance, basing promotions on someone’s objectively measured performance rather than the boss’s feeling about them. That seems obvious, but it’s still surprisingly rare. Be careful about the data you use, however. Using the wrong data can be as bad as using no data. Let me give you an example. Many managers ask their reports to do self-evaluations, which they then use as part of their performance appraisal. But if employees differ in how self-confident they are—in how comfortable they are with bragging—this will bias the manager’s evaluations. The more self-promoting ones will give themselves better ratings. There’s a lot of research on the anchoring effect, which shows that we can’t help but be influenced by numbers thrown at us, whether in negotiations or performance appraisals. So if managers see inflated ratings on a self-evaluation, they tend to unconsciously adjust their appraisal up a bit. Likewise, poorer self-appraisals, even if they’re inaccurate, skew managers’ ratings downward. This is a real problem, because there are clear gender (and also cross-cultural) differences in self-confidence. To put it bluntly, men tend to be more overconfident than women—more likely to sing their own praises. One meta-analysis involving nearly 100 independent samples found that men perceived themselves as significantly more effective leaders than women did when, actually, they were rated by others as significantly less effective. Women, on the other hand, are more likely to underestimate their capabilities. For example, in studies, they underestimate how good they are at math and think they need to be better than they are to succeed in higher-level math courses. And female students are more likely than male students to drop courses in which their grades don’t meet their own expectations. The point is, do not share self-evaluations with managers before they have made up their minds. They’re likely to be skewed, and I don’t know of any evidence that having people share self-ratings yields any benefits for employees or their organizations.

But it’s probably not possible to just eliminate all managerial activities that allow biased thinking.
Right. But you can change how managers do these things. One message here is to examine whether practices that we thought were gender-neutral in fact lead to biased outcomes. Take the SAT, for example. Your score shouldn’t have been affected by whether you’re male or female. But it turns out it was. The test once penalized students for incorrect answers in multiple-choice questions. That meant it was risky to guess. Research by Katie Baldiga Coffman of Ohio State University shows that this matters, especially for women. Among equally able test takers, male students are more likely to guess, while female students are more likely to skip questions, fearing the penalty and thus ending up with lower scores. Katie’s research reveals that gender differences in willingness to take risk account for about half of the gender gap in guessing. An analysis of the fall 2001 mathematics SAT scores suggests that this phenomenon alone explains up to 40% of the gap between male and female students in SAT scores. The 2016 SAT has been redesigned so that it doesn’t penalize for incorrect answers. Taking risk out of guessing means that different appetites for risk taking will no longer affect students’ final scores. This can be expected to level the playing field for male and female students. Notice that the new SAT doesn’t focus on changing the students’ mindsets about risk but instead corrects for different risk tolerances. After all, the test is meant to measure aptitude, not willingness to take risk. Organizations should take a page from this book: Look around and see whether your practices by design favor one gender over the other and discourage some people’s ability to do their best work. Do meetings, for example, reward those most willing to hold forth? If so, are there meeting formats you can use that put everyone on an equal footing?

How can firms get started?
Begin by collecting data. When I was academic dean at the Harvard Kennedy School, one day I came to the office to find a group of students camped out in front of my door. They were concerned about the lack of women on the faculty. Or so I thought. Much to my surprise, I realized that it was not primarily the number of female faculty that concerned them but the lack of role models for female students. They wanted to see more female leaders—in the classroom, on panels, behind the podium, teaching, researching, and advising. It turns out we had never paid attention to—or measured—the gender breakdown of the people visiting the Kennedy School. So we did. And our findings resembled those of most organizations that collect such data for the first time: The numbers weren’t pretty. Here’s the good news. Once you collect and study the data, you can make changes and measure progress. In 1999, MIT acknowledged that it had been unintentionally discriminating against female faculty. An examination of data had revealed gender differences in salary, space, resources, awards, and responses to outside offers. The data had real consequences. A follow-up study, published in 2011, showed that the number of female faculty in science and engineering had almost doubled, and several women held senior leadership positions. Companies can do their own research or turn to consultants for help. EDGE, where I serve as a scientific adviser, is a Swiss foundation and private company that helps organizations across the sectors measure how well they do in terms of gender equality. A firm named Paradigm is another. I came across it when I was speaking with tech firms in Silicon Valley and San Francisco. It helps companies diagnose where the problems are, starting by collecting data, and then come up with possible solutions, often based on behavioral designs.

You said that “seeing is believing.” But given the lack of senior female role models in organizations, what else can we do?
About a decade ago we noticed that of all the portraits of leaders on the walls of the Kennedy School, exactly zero were of women. The portraits we display affect what our employees and our students believe possible for themselves. I can attest that it was not our intention to signal to fully half of our students that they were not made to be leaders. Rather, this was done unthinkingly. Since then we have added new portraits, including Ida B. Wells, the U.S. civil rights activist and suffragist, and Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, the president of Liberia, winner of the Nobel Peace Prize, and a graduate of the Kennedy School.

You argue that it’s often a waste of time to try to debias people—but hanging portraits of women seems like a strategy to actually change individuals’ perceptions.
I am not arguing that mindsets can never change. But what we generally find is for beliefs to change, people’s experiences have to change first. Being surrounded by role models who look like you can affect what you think is possible for people like you. Sapna Cheryan of the University of Washington, for example, has shown that decorations in a computer science classroom can affect performance. Replacing the male-dominated Star Wars and Star Trek images with gender-neutral art and nature pictures strengthened female students’ associations between women and careers in computer science. In another study, women who were shown a picture of Hillary Clinton or Angela Merkel before giving a public speech did objectively better than those who were shown a picture of Bill Clinton or no picture at all. So what do we do with our boardrooms and hallways that celebrate our (male focused) history? When asked this question at a recent talk I gave at the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, I answered that, sometimes, we have to “hurry history.” I think that presidents John and John Quincy Adams, spouse and son of the thought leader and First Lady, Abigail Adams, would be proud that her portrait now is on Harvard’s walls—and of course, its presence makes a big difference to our female students.

Men may resist organizational changes favoring women because they view gender equality as zero sum—if women win, men lose. How then do you enlist men as agents of change?
Few men oppose the idea of benefiting from the entire talent pool—at least in theory. But some are concerned about actually leveling the playing field. In practice, of course, the blind auditions in orchestras have increased competition for male musicians. And the inclusion of women affects competition for men in all jobs. I understand that increased competition can be painful, but I am too much of an economist to not believe in the value of competition. There is no evidence that protectionism has served the world well. Enlisting men is partly about helping them to see the benefits of equality. Fathers of daughters are some of the strongest proponents of gender equality, for obvious reasons, so they can be particularly powerful voices when it comes to bringing other men along. Research on male CEOs, politicians, and judges shows that fathers of daughters care more about gender equality than men without children or with only sons. I would urge fathers of daughters to be outspoken in their own organizations and to advocate for equality not just as a broad goal, but to actively help drive the changes I describe here—collecting baseline organizational data, promoting experiments, measuring what works, changing processes to limit the impact of our biased minds and level the playing field, and so on. A big part is, simply, continued awareness building—not just of the problem but also of the solutions available to organizations. I recently gave a talk on Wall Street to an audience that was male. I started by inviting people with children to raise their hands. Then I asked those with daughters to raise their hands. Many hands were up. I told them that this made my job easy as some of my biggest allies were in the room. It broke the ice, especially when I told the audience that my husband and I only have sons—who are great feminists, I might add, and in small ways have already brought behavioral insights to their school by reminding the principal to refer to teachers in general as both “he” and “she.”

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/educationleadershipmanagement/?p=377

8.4 Group Decision Making

Within group decision-making, decisions not only affect the individual, but affect each member of the group. We discussed that decision-making is the method or action of thinking through a process and coming to a consensus. Therefore, group decision-making is the coming to a consensus with multiple individuals in a collaborative nature. Within learning organizations the aspect of collaboration can be beneficial to the advancement of learning within the organization. However, let’s point out some common advantages and disadvantages to group decision-making within organizations.

Advantages

Disadvantages

•Involving numerous people with different ideas.

•Reduce bias in making informed decisions.

•Effective consensus can lead to a superior outcome.

•Conflict can hinder process.

•An individual with more power exerts more influence on the group.

•More power leads to other members not sharing ideas.

Advantages and disadvantages present two different types of representations within a group dynamic. The main advantage is that individuals within a group have a voice, leading to the process of brainstorming which is the generating of a variety of solutions or possible outcomes for an effective decision[6]. On the other hand the main disadvantage is regarded as group-think, which occurs when one person uses their power in a group process and individuals will remain silent not to disturb the peace (i.e. going along with what the individual thinks as a group)[6]. Regardless of brainstorming or group-think, members within a group must be held accountable for the decisions that they make. This is enhanced through more inclusion, as the more individuals are included, the responsibility and accountability is distributed equally as opposed to an individual who makes their decision on behalf of the group. One individual makes the decision, but the accountability is still distributed equally, therefore the positive or negative outcome of the decision falls on someone who had no part in the decision-making process.

One way to develop a quality group, especially if there is a clear power dynamic present, is to add a contrarian or member to play devil’s advocate. A member who plays devil’s advocate reduces group-think[6], and provides an alternate view or a challenge to an individual’s logic on a decision. For example in a university meeting with professors and department heads, it may be beneficial to have a student present to offer a differing view that is contrary to the views of professors or administrators. If administrators are making decisions on students within an institution, a student who offers a contrarian view may avoid administrative group think, and have senior members see their decision from the perspective of a student.

Group decisions are more effective when time is available for group involvement and when the problem is unclear. If you have time available and you would like to tackle a difficult problem here is a summary of some different techniques that improve group decision-making[6].

Figure 4: Summary of Techniques That May Improve Group Decision-Making. (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC-BY 4.0 license.)

Within a learning organization we can find that when groups are able to share ideas and their own learning experiences that improves the quality of the learning for all members within the group. In chapter 9 we will go more in depth to collaboration within a learning organizations, and the implications it has on a learning styles within a modern learning environment.

Review Questions:

1. What is bounded rationality? And how do we manage it?

2. What is confirmation bias? And how do we avoid it?

3. Why is it important to have a contrarian or devil’s advocate in the group decision-making process?

Conclusion

Decision-making is an important aspect not only in organizations, but in everyday life. We all make decisions on a daily basis, some which carry more weight than others, but it is imperative that as leaders we understand the decisions we make have an effect on individuals, and we must hold ourselves and or our group members accountable for the decisions we make. Let’s see how we did with our learning objectives for this chapter:

1. Decision-making is thinking through a process and coming to a consensus. Within organizations, decision-making affects stakeholders (i.e. vendors, customers, employees, shareholders etc.).

2. Hopefully leaders choose the best decision out of a set of good options, or attempt to reduce harm from a set of bad options. This is ethical decision-making avoiding a binary of picking just one option.

3. The style is dependent on the problem (structured, unstructured, and crisis), using the best style that fits the specific problem will render the best results. One tool that can be used within decision-making styles is the role of delegation.

4. Barriers of bounded rationality, escalation of commitment, time constraints, uncertainty, biases and conflict can be detrimental to the decision-making process. Being knowledgeable about situations and using that knowledge can help remove barriers.

5. Teamwork for the most part is beneficial, depending on the power dynamic, if too much power is presented, that needs to be evened out to ensure a full collaborative nature.

Building of the decision-making in groups, in chapter 9 we will discuss the teams, teamwork, and collaboration. We will go deep into understanding how collaboration works within a learning organization, and some effective learning theories associated with collaboration and teamwork.

References

1. Openstax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:64O7gCyY@6/2-1-Overview-of-Managerial-Decision-Making

2. Schermerhorn, J. R., & Wright, B. (2014). Management: Third Canadian Edition. Toronto, Ontario: John Wiley & Sons Canada

3. Openstax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:64O7gCyY@6/2-1-Overview-of-Managerial-Decision-Making

4. Kimani, G. N. (n. d.). Educational management. African Virtual University.  Retrieved from https://oer.avu.org/bitstream/handle/123456789/748/EDU%2004_Education%20Management.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

5. Openstax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:TSlghZHZ@6/2-4-Barriers-to-Effective-Decision-Making

6. Openstax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:ti2VQkRr@6/2-6-Group-Decision-Makin

IX

Chapter 9: Teams, Teamwork, and Collaboration

Sometimes leaders and managers cant put the puzzle together themselves, which is why teamwork and collaboration is so important.

Taking on a difficult challenge alone can be a fool’s errand, especially if the challenge requires multiple tools, skills, or ideals one individual may not possess. Teamwork and collaboration are vital aspects to success within learning organizations via effective team dynamics, experiential learning, and project-based learning. Within this chapter we will discuss the learning styles associated with collaboration, the implications of online collaboration within a modern learning society, and teamwork within modern organizations. The learning objectives for this chapter are as follows:

1. Describe the characteristics of teams and what makes a team effective.

2. Describe what are some divergent learning theories associated with collaborative learning

3. Compare and contrast the use of online collaborative learning, and its effect in modern learning organizations.

4. Differentiate some common teamwork features within organizations.

5. Describe how a team develops within the workplace. What are some considerations and dynamics present when engaging with teamwork inside of an organization.

Chapter Tips:

- Think about accountability as a group or a team.

- How would experiential learning be beneficial in a team setting?

- How important is communication within a team setting?

9.1 Teamwork and Collaboration

Image: Siena College, This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license. Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Teamwork_(4705884489).jpg

When we think of teams our first thought may direct us to sports. When we think of a team such as the Toronto Maple Leafs of the National Hockey League we may see the team as a collection of players combining to achieve goals (both literally and figuratively) on the ice to achieve success. In addition, there are members of the Toronto Maple Leafs who have different goals off the ice such as the front office to put together an on-ice product that the fans want to see, the group in marketing that effectively markets the players to the fan-base, or even the human resources team within the Toronto Maple Leafs organization that effectively keeps the intricate aspects of hiring, firing, and payroll afloat with a hockey organization. Regardless of the goals and the duties of different departments they all come together as the Toronto Maple Leafs team.

A team, according to Katzenbach and Smith, is a group of individuals with complementary skills who work together to accomplish shared goals while holding themselves equally accountable for results[1]. Within the team dynamic inside organizations it is important to outline what makes a team truly effective? Some practices have been outlined by Katzenbach and Smith which are as follows[2]:

- Establish urgency with performance standards

- Select members based on skill and potential, not personality

- Pay attention to first meetings and actions

- Set clear rules of behaviour

- Set and complete a few immediate tasks and goals

- Challenge the group with fresh facts and information

- Spend time together

- Exploit the power of positive feedback, recognition, and reward.

Within these principals you can find aspects that create a truly effective team atmosphere. Although a positive personality can be beneficial to the interpersonal side of teamwork, when we select members based on skill and potential we avoid biases and potential group-think which can cause a negative effect in teams. Another important aspect of teamwork is setting clear rules of behaviour, especially in the realm of a learning organization. Using an institute of higher learning as an example, the syllabus that you receive as a student at the beginning of the semester in an applied sense is a guideline to assignments, due dates, and a rubric of expectation for assignments. Looking more in-depth, a syllabus sets the rules of behaviour for creating accountability in the form of an agreement. This agreement creates checks and balances in which the students check and balance the professor to ensure the content is taught properly and dates are consistent, and the professor checks and balances the students that they complete assignments on time and with the expectation that outcomes are being met according to the assignment rubric (See Figure 1).

Figure 1: Syllabus Expectations. (Attribution: Carson Babich, University of Windsor.)

Within these principles you can see a sense of accountability being shared between managers and subordinates, this embraces the idea of both the manager and the subordinate hold each other accountable for their actions within the workplace. This creates a more cohesive and effective dynamic between all power relationships within teamwork.

Review Questions:

1. How do Katzenbach and Smith define a team?

2. What is an example of checks and balances within a learning organization?

9.2 Using Experiential Education to Foster Teamwork and Collaboration

Pictured is John Dewey, an American psychologist and educational reformer. Referred to as one of the forefathers of American pragmatism, also was prominent in the early understanding of experiential learning. Image: John Dewey, United States Library of Congress, This work is from the Library of Congress. According to the library, there are no known copyright restrictions on the use of this work.
Images submitted for copyright by Underwood & Underwood are in the public domain in the United States due to expiration or lack of renewal. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:John_Dewey_cph.3a51565.jpg

Within education, we tend to develop a concept on how one benefits from learning, which creates a philosophy towards teaching. As a leader within a learning organization, it is your role to develop a method that helps your subordinates learn, and learn effectively. One theory that finds its place within learning within organizations is the theory of experiential learning. Experiential learning was first coined by John Dewey[3] and later perfected by David Kolb who describes the theory as providing that empirical experience plays a role in the learning process[4], and in many ways connects to the concept of having expert power as a leader within organizations through experiential knowledge.

The goal of experiential learning is to incorporate the concept of learning in relation to real-world contexts. Bates outlines a set of design models that embed the learning within the real world[5]:

- Laboratory, workshop or studio work

- Apprenticeship

- Problem-based learning

- Case-based learning

- Project-based learning

- Inquiry-based learning

- Cooperative (work or community based) learning

Within this context we will look at how learning within a real-world context plays a role with leadership in teams. Most of the models presented can incorporate some form of teamwork that renders success within an organization. Our focus will be on how the models of project-based learning and inquiry based learning within organizations use teamwork in the goal of learning productivity.

Project-Based Learning

At this point in learning about leadership and management within learning organizations, you find that projects (either creation, implementation, or completion) are a common occurrence within organizations, and arguably what moves an organization forward. Project-based learning is described as providing a student, in a classroom setting, a sense of responsibility and ownership in conducting projects with other students[5]. This method provides students a real-world look at how to develop plans, strategies, problem solving, and delegate responsibility within an organizational simulation, without the risk of making an actual decision within an organization. Larmer and Mergendoller claim that every project should perceive project work as meaningful, and that the process fulfills and educational purpose[5], this allows project-based learning to provide learners the ability to see this simulation and be familiar when they are placed in this situation in their future job endeavours.

According to Bates, a danger to project-based learning is that a project can take on a life of its own and lose focus of essential learning objectives[5]. Within learning organizations it is important to take part in the real-world concepts but the learning objectives should never be left to the wayside. As a leader, take ownership of the project-based work and decipher if the learning objectives are being achieved. If not, as a leader you are responsible for adjusting and making changes to the project to ensure learning is first and foremost the main objective of the project.

Inquiry-Based Learning

With project-based learning, a leader within the learning organization has a level of control within the learning process. That control is manifested in the leader providing the groups a driving question and guidance throughout the process[5]. Inquiry-based learning is similar to project-based learning but effectively different. A leader can provide help, but the learner explores their own themes, develops actions and comes to conclusions[5]. As a leader it may be beneficial before using an inquiry method to better understand the level of mastery of your learners with a particular project. This relates to the concept of Bloom’s taxonomy discussed in Chapter 6 to build the learning through experience in providing guiding questions in project-based learning so that your learners can eventually develop their own driving questions in an inquiry-based learning realm.

In many ways inquiry-based learning can be based on spectrum that develops the steps needed for achievement along with involvement from the leader or instructor. Banchi and Bell have developed different levels of inquiry-based learning to outline the actions and procedures depending on the learning environment[6].

Figure 2: Levels of Inquiry-Based Learning. (Attribution: Banchi, H., and Bell, R. (2008). The Many Levels of Inquiry Science and Children, Vol. 46, No. 2)

The use of experiential learning within the framework of leadership provides a level of autonomy towards both leader and learner on how learning should be facilitated. This is at the core of experiential learning as the learner develops their own learning style and take accountability for their learning. This is vital in the framework of a institute of higher learning, as a learner leaves the comforts of an experiential learning classroom environment and move towards the real-world full of decision-making and risk, they will be more prepared to take on specific challenges leading to success.

Activity: Blindfold Drawing

Source: University of Toronto Mississauga. (n. d.). Experiential learning activities. University of Toronto Mississauga, Experiential Education Office. Retrieved from https://www.utm.utoronto.ca/experience/sites/files/experience/public/shared/Team%20Based%20Problem%20Solving%20Activities%20-%20UTM%20EEO.pdf

Blindfold Drawing

Objective: This is an activity that focuses on interpretation and communication. Once the
drawing is finished, it’s always interesting to see how the drawer interprets the description.

Participants: Teams (minimum 2 per team) + facilitator

Instructions/Rules: Divide everyone into groups of two or more. Have individuals
sitting/standing facing away from each other. Give one side the pen and paper or black/white
board and chalk/marker, and the other the picture. Those with the picture are to describe what
is depicted to their other teammate(s) without actually saying what it is. For example, if the
image is a worm in an apple, they are not to say, “Draw an apple with a worm in it.” The person
who is required to draw has to base their drawing on what they think the picture depicts, based
on the verbal descriptions.

Materials Needed: Pictures, pen and paper, or black/white board and chalk/marker

Timing: 10 – 15 minutes

Outcomes/Goals: Team-based activity where clear communication is key. Forces those
describing the image to be creative in their prompts, and those drawing out the image to use
active listening and interpretive skills.

9.3 Online Collaborative Learning

At this point in learning about leadership within learning organizations, we know the impact that technology has, and will continue to have on learning organizations in the future. This supports the need for an understanding collaboration and teamwork within a technological environment. Online Collaborative Learning (OCL) is defined as a model of learning in which learners are supported to work together, create knowledge, invent, innovate, and develop conceptual knowledge needed to solve problems[7], all while engaging in modern technology and developing through that technology collaboratively. Since the commercialization of high-speed internet in the 1990’s, online collaborative learning became a studied phenomenon. Within learning organizations such as universities, online components are almost integrated in every-day life of a university student. One of the most common uses are online discussion boards between classmates and the instructor. Here are some characteristics of an online discussion board[7]:

- Text based, not oral

- Asynchronous: can log on anywhere at any time and be involved (as opposed to the synchronous method of you classic university lecture)

- Threaded conversation to enhance learning through diverse options creating dynamic sub-topics.

A discussion board outlines how learning is done through an online setting and follow the core design principles of OCL, these principles are outlined as follows[8]:

1. Idea generating – brainstorming and divergent thinking in a group.

2. Idea organizing – learners compare, analyze, categorize different ideas.

3. Intellectual convergence – learners reach a level of synthesis, understanding, and consensus.

When we develop an understanding about the core principles, we see the use of enacting mastery similar to the divergent method of experiential learning. Problem and inquiry based methods are introduced in OCL through the use of technology and developing thinking, analysis, and consensus through a different method of transmission. Within learning organizations, it may be beneficial to incorporate different styles within your philosophy to develop what learning works best for your learners. However, if you make the learning divergent and involved, either online or in-person, learning will be achieved.

Of course, some are still hesitant to say OCL is answer to advanced learning. Some feel that the introduction of technology creates this doomsday effect that renders human teachers useless, this is not the case as the goal of OCL is not to replace teachers but enhance the communication between teacher and learner[8]. However we would be remiss to say there are potential limitations to OCL to be cognizant of when using this method for learners.

OCL Pros

OCL Cons

- Produce deep and transformative learning.

- Scaffold learning, leading to higher order thinking.

- Embrace diverse viewpoints from a multitude of sources, providing an enhanced learning experience.

- To be used effectively, leaders and learners need to be educated in the technology.

- Lack of emphasis leading to a lack of cohesion.

- Lack of involvement will lower the amount of sources leading to a fractured learning experience.

Regardless if you feel the method works or does not work. The question depends on how your learning community responds to the implementation. You may implement OCL and after a trial run, discuss with your students how they are responding to the OCL method. One of the best ways to achieve this is to engage in a reflection with classmates discussing OCL in a start, stop, continue format. With this format you as a learner can gain feedback on what is working with OCL, what is not working with OCL, and what can be implemented in OCL to make it better for your learners. Receiving feedback does not only help your learners, it develops your abilities as a leader to respond to problems and solve them effectively.

9.4 Common Features in Organizations

Looking more broadly, we can see organizations themselves as networks of teams. Organizations can be formed through a formal or informal process, where Formal teams facilitate formal learning which the goal of personal development is the most important aspect[9], much like how we discussed in project-based learning, that the project should have importance but not outweigh the learning objective. Informal teams facilitate informal learning, the organizational task is the most important and the learning outcome is secondary[9]. Essentially with an informal structure, the hope is that the learning is inherent and that most people within your organizational group understand a solidified learning outcome when carrying out a project. An example of an informal structure would be surveying for a political candidate, you have a script and a general learned ability to engage members of the public, but that is secondary to completing the task of getting the questions answered by the citizen and ensuring a vote for your candidate.

Establishing the type of organizational team identity, you can explore different types of teamwork styles within learning organizations. Some of the more recent teamwork trends within learning organizations follows three models:

- Cross-functional teams

- Virtual teams

- Self-managing teams

Given that learners come from different disciplines, especially in a learning organization such as a university; it would not be out of the realm for learners to come together from different disciplines. Cross-functional teams are members within different groups who work together on a project. This teamwork trend follows an interdisciplinary nature to work on new ideas through cross-departmental cooperation. An example of this in a university setting would be the faculty of education working with the faculty of psychology to introduce a minor degree in educational psychology of elementary school students. This brings educational expertise and psychology expertise together merging the disciplines to create a beneficial topic for the greater good of society.

In the same thread as cross-functional teams comes virtual teams which can be cross-functional but are computer-orientated, rather than face-to-face interactions. One positive is that effective work can be done with people outside of your geographic area, an antithesis to virtual teams is that lack of face-to-face interaction limits the roles of emotions during the communication process. Using our previous example, the group who has worked together on an educational psychology minor at a school in Toronto can coordinate with a school in Vancouver virtually and in real-time discussing the prospects of the degree.

What about teams without a clear central figure at the helm? Self-managing teams are autonomous for the individuals of the group and they are given authority as to how they go about their tasks. Self-managing teams must have members who are competent working together and embrace participative decision-making delivering better performance, decreased cost, and higher morale. Using our previous sample, this would be letting the education department and the psychology department work on the aspects of this minor without the central figure of the university administration managing the process. In this trend, university administration allows the experts to manage their respective teams, and be available for problem-solving with events that extend beyond the scope of both departments.

Characteristics of High Performing Teams

Regardless of the teamwork trend, all members of the team have to be high performing. According to Schein, there are seven characteristics that high performing teams have[10]:

1. Clear and elevating goals

2. Task driven, results-oriented

3. Competent, hard-working members

4. Collaborative culture

5. High standards of excellence

6. External support and recognition

7. Strong principled leadership

Review Questions:

1. What are the differences between formal and informal teams?

2. What are the differences between cross-functional, virtual and self-managing projects?

3. What are seven characteristics of high preforming teams?

9.5 Teamwork in the Workplace

When looking at some common features of teamwork within organizations we can look at the more specific roles of a manager within an organization. Managers within team structures take on the roles of:

- Team leader

- Network facilitators

- Team member

- External coach

These teamwork roles are very important to the success of an organization, so important that an Ipsos-Reid poll stated back in 2003 that 86% of Canadian business executives claim that teamwork is “very critical” to the overall success of their organization[11]. When we focus on teamwork in the workplace we want to know how teams do the work within an organization. According to Conger, Finegold and Lawler, teams that perform its tasks efficiently, satisfy its members (stakeholders), and remain viable for future projects are helmed as effective teams[12]. Effective teams are able to effectively harness team inputs presented and produce a completion of desired outcomes.

Team inputs are both physical and emotion tools used by teams to complete tasks within an organization. Inputs include resources, nature of the work, team members, personal skills, and member characteristics. Hackman outlines how team inputs are implemented within an organization which lead to organizational success[13].

Figure 3: Inputs, Throughputs and Outputs. (Attribution: J. R. Hackman, The Design of Work in Teams. 1987)

How do teams eventually form and become effective teams? Essentially it happens in stages according to educational psychologist Bruce Tuckman who developed the Tuckman Stages of Group Development. This model outlines five stages of the team development[14]:

- Forming

- Storming

- Norming

- Performing

- Adjourning

Figure 4 shows the stages using the axis of relationship focus and task focus. The fifth stage of adjourning is omitted as it explains the disbanding of the team once the project is completed[14].

Figure 4: Tuckman’s Model of Team Development (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license)

In this process, team members get together and share personal goals about the project leading to collective goals and ground rules set for the guidelines for the team; this is the forming stage and is the move from an individual framework to a collaborative framework. Next we have storming, which members try to avoid group-think or one individual’s control on the group. Teams may experience trouble through balancing organizational and emotional factors as the storming process can be tempestuous process depending on the direction the group takes. It can be disorienting moving away from personal convictions and towards a cohesive nature, and at times you may to need to take your focus away from the organizational factors, until your team is a cohesive unit.

Once the team is completely clear on the objectives and have established comfortable emotional factors with members; you begin to develop close relationships and focus on completing organizational tasks in the norming stage. The next stage is the performing stage where group members are working at their most effective to get the tasks completed; this is when teams are at their most effective and highest performing. The final stage is adjourning essentially when members disband to focus back on individual factors, or certain members leave.

Most groups that go through this stage engage in a learning curve where their tasks focus takes a hit, but ultimately, it is beneficial for the task focus to take a hit in the beginning only to produce a better relationship, as a positive relationship will help your team achieve the tasks in a more effective way. Remember, teamwork is about balancing the dynamic of emotional relationships with organizational tasks.

With relationship factors playing equally an important role with building effective teams, what is the role of a leader or manager within the framework of relationship identity with organizational teams? When managing teams, one must create a boundary dynamic that can be fostering and concise with all members. The boundary dynamic is a delicate boundary between strategy, stakeholder management, and organizational management[15]. The most precise example of a boundary dynamic is the leader or manager relationship with a team. Managers must equally carry relationships with the team, and with each individual when problems arise. Figure 5 outlines a triangle of relationships and responsibility for managers and leaders within a team dynamic.

Figure 5: The Triangle of Relationships (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC-BY 4.0 license)

Review Questions:

1. What are roles a manager takes on within a team structure?

2. What are the five stages of Tuckman’s Model of Team Development?

3. Describe the delicate boundary that a leader or manager is involved within a team? What three areas do they have to manage?

Conclusion

In this chapter, we developed a deep insight to how teams are formed and what makes a team effective. We also looked at divergent teaching styles and learning styles to show how teamwork can be effective in learning organizations. How did we do with our learning objectives?

1. A team is a group with complementary skills who work together to accomplish goals. Using the form of checks and balances is an effective measure to establish guidelines within teams.

2. Experiential learning, project-based learning, and inquiry-based learning are effective divergent methods to use in learning organizations. It is important to provide the learner the opportunity to learn, and have the learner to set their course for their learning.

3. Online Collaborative Learning (OCL) is also a new divergent way to foster learning in a modern environment, but pitfalls can be present in regards to decreased deep communication removing that face-to-face component.

4. Make up of formal and informal teams use the dynamics of cross-functional, virtual, and self-managing teams depending on the organizational goals and situations.

5. Effective teams within the workplace develop through the five stages of forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. Leaders and groups either internally or externally need to create boundaries and keep open lines of communication with teams and individuals.

Within this chapter we discussed communication within teams being an important factor, especially when establishing relationships in the team forming process. This will lead into our next chapter about communication where we will discuss the forms of communications and its effectiveness inside of a learning organization.

Unit 3 Reflection

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/educationleadershipmanagement/?p=690

References

1. Katzenbach, J. R., & Smith, D. K. (1993). The discipline of teams. The Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/1993/03/the-discipline-of-teams-2

2. Katzenbach, J. R., & Smith, D. K. (1993). The discipline of teams. In Openstax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:or6mf3j5@5/15-1-Teamwork-in-the-Workplace

3. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York, NY: Kappa Delta Pi

4. Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. In Kolb D. A., Boyatzis, R. E., & Mainemelis, C. (eds.) Experiential learning theory: Previous research and new directions. Retrieved from http://www.d.umn.edu/~kgilbert/educ5165-731/Readings/experiential-learning-theory.pdf

5. Bates, A. W. (2015). Teaching in a digital age: Guidelines for designing teaching and learning. Licensed under a CreativeCommons Attribution – NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, sec. 3.6. Retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/teachinginadigitalage/chapter/4-4-models-for-teaching-by-doing/

6. Banchi, H., & Bell, R. (2008). The many levels of inquiry. In Bates, A. W. (ed.). Teaching in a digital age: Guidelines for designing teaching and learning. Licensed under a CreativeCommons Attribution – NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, sec. 3.6. Retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/teachinginadigitalage/chapter/4-4-models-for-teaching-by-doing/

7. Bates, A. W. (2015). Teaching in a digital age: Guidelines for designing teaching and learning. Licensed under a CreativeCommons Attribution – NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, sec. 4.4. Retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/teachinginadigitalage/chapter/6-5-online-collaborative-learning/

8. Harasim, L. (2012). Learning theory and online technologies. In Bates, A. W. (ed.). Teaching in a digital age: Guidelines for designing teaching and learning. Licensed under a CreativeCommons Attribution – NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, sec. 4.4. Retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/teachinginadigitalage/chapter/6-5-online-collaborative-learning/

9. Macneil, C. (2001). The supervisor as a facilitator of informal learning in work teams. Journal of Workplace Learning 13(6), 246-253. Retrieved from https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/EUM0000000005724/full/pdf?title=the-supervisor-as-a-facilitator-of-informal-learning-in-work-teams

10. Schein, E. H. (1988). Organizational Culture and Leadership. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass.

11. Ipsos-Reid. (2003). Mid-sized Canadian business executives say teamwork is critical to overall success of their organization. Retrieved from https://www.ipsos.com/en-ca/mid-sized-canadian-business-executives-say-teamwork-critical-overall-success-their-organization

12. Conger, J. A., Finegold, D., Lawler III, E. E. (1998). Appraising boardroom performance. The Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/1998/01/appraising-boardroom-performance

13. Hackman, J. R. (1987). The design of work in teams. In Lorsch, J. Handbook of Organizational Behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Retrieved from https://www.uio.no/studier/emner/matnat/ifi/INF5181/h14/artikler-teamarbeid/hackman-(1987).design-of-work-teamspdf.pdf

14. Tuckman, B. (1965). Development sequence in small groups. In Openstax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:34IFj0Gm@6/15-2-Team-Development-Over-Time

15. Openstax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:0Jcq2e1m@6/15-3-Things-to-Consider-When-Managing-Teams

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Chapter 10: Communication

Communication is an important part of everyday life. We communicate in many ways on a daily basis. This image shows an example of non-verbal communication.

How does one individual communicate with another individual? How do you communicate with members at a workplace or in society? Communication is not only an important aspect within organizations, but within our everyday lives. In this chapter we will discuss what communication is, the communication process, communications within learning organizations, opening channels of communication, and communicative media and technology in education. This chapter will outline the importance of communication within learning organizations and trends on how we will use communication in a future learning organization. Here are the chapter learning outcomes:

1. Define communication and the communication process.

2. Define the concept of encoding and decoding.

3. Define and compare the types of communication within organizations, and describe their importance within learning organizations.

4. Define the concepts used in organizations that lead to open communication.

5. Compare and contrast the new trends in media and technology within education and learning organizations.

Chapter Tips:

- Think about the importance of communication within an organization.

- What is the importance of giving and receiving feedback?

- What are some effective communication tools to use in a learning organization?

10.1 The Communication Process

Think for a minute, if you can go an entire day without any form of communication, better yet, can you go the first hour in the morning without communication? I would bet that you couldn’t, communication is the act of relaying messages either verbal or non-verbal from one person or entity to another person or entity through signs, symbols and syntactics. Communication is not necessarily talking to someone, one could say that when you are driving to your job in the morning, the act of driving itself through stopping, using your turn signal, and at times honking your horn are all forms of communication. In a way, one of the biggest safety features of the car, is the driver’s ability to be communicable while driving to drive safely. Communication is how we interact within our environment outside ourselves and in our purview. When using person to person communication we discuss the communication process which is when a communicator encodes a message and receiver decodes a message[1].

Figure 1 outlines a simple communication process where one individual sends an encoded message to another individual. The second individual then decodes and offers feedback.

Figure 1: The Basic Communication Model (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC-BY 4.0 license)

Two very important aspects of the communication process is the encoding and decoding of messages. Encoding is the process where individuals initiating the communication process send out a set of systematic symbols[2]. For example when you say “Hello, how are you today” that is using the systematic symbol of language to create a common code for the receiver. Decoding is the receiver accepting the encoded message as an interpretation, after which the receiver provides feedback which is in many cases the final stage and usually a message of acknowledgement of the coding process[2]. In our example the decoding is the individual recognizing the greeting and responding with “I’m good, how are you” and then the process either continues or ends.

Another aspect present in the communication process is the introduction of noise. Noise in regards to the communication process is the way encoding and decoding can be distorted by a variety of elements[2]. Noise can come from a variety of problems including physical distractions, poor channels, and cultural disconnect.

Review Questions:

1. What is communication and the communication process?

2. What are two important aspects of the communication process?

10.2 Organizational Communication

Within organizations, communication is used widely throughout the organizational structure. Within organizations, at all times we attempt to achieve effective communication which is the senders message is fully interpreted and understood by the receiver. When communication is effective it provides the receiver the ability to understand what is said and either act or provide a concise response to the sender, engaging in effective conversation. Effective conversation is best when the communication can be delivered at minimal cost of resources which is referred to as efficient communication. Efficient communication can be when a manager tells an employee something using jargon or colloquialisms, the employee understands completely and carries out a task. On the other hand, the use of jargon and colloquialisms might not be the best way to foster efficient communication if the employee does not understand the jargon; this requires leaders and managers to be flexible in the language they use to foster efficient communication with all members inside your organization.

There are many ways effective and efficient communication can be relayed within organizations. One of the most common is oral communication, which is the exchange of messages that are spoken and listened[3]. With oral communication being quite common, spoken messages go hand in hand with listening, when someone is communicating orally to you, more often you are listening to what they have to say. Listening in many ways is transmitting the message from the sender, however in organizations we would like to achieve the process of taking action to help someone say what they actually mean, this is referred to as active listening. Active listening is important to not only transmitting the message, but understanding and interpreting the message to create an effective action on the communication presented. There are rules to active listening that one must follow when receiving a message:

- Listen for the message transmission

- Listen for feelings

- Acknowledge all cues

- Paraphrase an restate

Following these rules allows the receiver to fully understand the content being presented. Active listening is especially important in organizations where learning is being fostered, given that learners learn at different rates and levels. Effective communication and active listening are important to transmit learning to all levels of students; when using the example of teachers communicating to students, a teacher that uses oral communication needs to be effective in their transmission, so that a student who is actively listening can relay back and restate the ideas presented. Teachers in the classrooms are the leaders, and if a student cannot comprehend the message, you may have to refine your oral communication to allow for active listening to be present.

What if oral communication doesn’t work? Well there are other forms of communication to allow learners to become active listeners. Written communication includes emails, texts, reports and other annotations relayed from messenger to receiver for precise information[3]. When something precise needs to be mentioned, or a set of specific steps need to be followed, the use of written communication can be effective in relaying specific steps. The active listening to written communication is the following of the specific steps, for example, if we use the teacher and the student, the teacher might say “the final assignment is a big assignment, at least 7 pages”. One person may interpret that is 7 pages in any format, however another student may not feel 7 pages provides incomplete information and might as for specifics. The teacher then might provide a specific rubric that states the final assignment must be a minimum of 1700 words, double spaced, with Times New Roman font. This is the precise information that is needed in many instances to provide a more complete interpretation of the information being transmitted.

There is another form of communication that doesn’t incorporate reading or writing. Nonverbal communication is the transmission of communication without reading or writing[3], and the use of physical examples such as eye movement and hand gestures or environmental examples such as using a turn signal in a car, or even a billboard. Using the example of teachers and students again, if communication cannot be transmitted through oral or written communication, a teacher might use an image or hand gestures to exemplify their point. This heightens two senses from the student in that they need to use their ears and eyes to accept and transmit the information from the teacher. Nonverbal communication transmission can be effective to many individuals but problems can be presented in regards to environmental examples, which segways into connecting communication with social influences.

Communication either oral, written or nonverbal is a social process[3]. Figure 2 outlines the many of the social influences that are presented within an organization, which can be mirrored to an organization of learning:

Figure 2: Patterns of Managerial Communication (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC-BY 4.0 license)

Within learning organizations, communication is no different and follows the same notions as other organizations. One aspect that is prevalent in learning organizations is the concept of feedback and ensuring learning is happening with the learner present. Feedback is the process of transmitting information or a reaction about a product or process, which attempts to foster improvement. With learning it is important to provide feedback to learners to ensure they are progressing through higher-order levels of learning, but as leaders in learning organizations, we need to go one step further in providing the feedback, ensuring the feedback is useful and following up on the feedback to ensure the learner is progressing. This is called constructive feedback and is a form of feedback that ensures that someone is being provided a path for improvement from the feedback. Here are some guidelines to ensure that feedback is constructive:

- Provide direct feedback based on trust.

- Ensure feedback is specific.

- Ensure feedback is valid.

- Give feedback in small doses.

All these forms of communication within learning organizations help build the communication process through better understanding and conceptualization. It is clear than no communication is alike within learning organizations, and as we move throughout this chapter try to make sense of where certain forms of communication can be more relevant than others.

<<Why you think you’re right; even if you’re wrong – Julia Galef>>

A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/educationleadershipmanagement/?p=401

10.3 Opening Channels of Communication: Elton Mayo and the Hawthorne Study

In chapter two we discussed the concept of behavioural management and the use of Elton Mayo’s Hawthorne Studies to understand human worker needs within a company or organization. Focusing on the worker and their psychological and physical needs itself are forms of communication. This classical study focused on telephone line workers at the Hawthorne Western Electric plant working in a private room and the changes within the work space to enhance productivity. They initially attempted to examine the effects of lighting to enhance productivity[4], it eventually turned into an understanding of job redesign adding incentives including pay increases, and break times which in turn motivated workers to become more productive leading to the theory of the Hawthorne effect which is “the phenomenon that employees perform better when they feel singled out for attention or feel that management is concerned about their welfare”[4].

An artists rendition of the Western Electric Company in Hawthorne, Illinois, 1925. (Attribution: Western Electric Company Photograph Album, 1925. This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published in the United States between 1924 and 1977 without a copyright notice. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hawthorne,_Illinois_Works_of_the_Western_Electric_Company,_1925.jpg)

What does the Hawthorne study say about communication? Well for one, when workers were provided breaks, shorter work weeks, and pay incentives, this enhanced the moral of individuals, this in turn strengthened the communication between employees at Hawthorne Western Electric. This morale of individuals who shared ideas about the company incentives and discuss their personal feelings to others within the organization is referred to as interpersonal communication[5]. The act of interpersonal communication within workplaces is prevalent in modern times, but its roots in many ways can be traced back to the Hawthorne experiment, a personal revision to the Hawthorne effect can be when employees are able to positively, personally, and emotionally communicate about their objectives in the workplace about their personal welfare, you can produce motivated workers who are more productive.

With interpersonal communication, this changes the dynamics of leader and subordinate within organizations. This is in reference to opening channels of communication through physical and emotional factors within the workplace. Opening communication with space design can be an effective measure when relaying information to an individual. One way of seeing this, is how a leader or manager organizes the seats in their office[6].

Figure 3: Space Design. (John R. Schermerhorn Jr. and Barry Wright, Management: 3rd Canadian Edition.)

Essentially the concept of interpersonal communication is the key factor for opening up channels of communication within the workplace, and when opening up channels of communication you can engage in communication richness. Communication richness is how effective and holistic the communication media is depending on the communication tool used. This can be viewed as a spectrum, such as Schermerhorn and Wright exemplify in how a manager chooses a communication channel and which one provides the most richness[6].

Figure 4: Channel Selection. (Attribution: John R. Schermerhorn Jr. and Barry Wright, Management: 3rd Canadian Edition.)

When it comes to organizational communication and opening channels of communication it is important for leaders and managers to understand the possible limits of the possible channels and use the channels effectively depending on the situation. Regardless of the channel, the concept of interpersonal communication must be presented to foster success or in the case of learning organizations; deep learning.

A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/educationleadershipmanagement/?p=403

10.4 Communicative Media and Technology in Education

Within this modern climate, we understand that communication has come a long way since the days of Elton Mayo and his Hawthorne Study. The advancement of technology has given us the ability to communicate locally and globally faster than ever. When we focus on the learning organization we look at how we communicate to individuals as a medium for information transmission. For this section media will generally be described as information displayed from a source (i.e. leader, manager, educator etc.) through a medium (i.e. oral communication, written communication, and nonverbal communication) towards the transmitters (i.e. learners, subordinates, students, etc.).

Cast and crew, race to get ready for the NBC Nightly News. Image: NBC Nightly News with Ann Curry, This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NBC_Nightly_News_with_Ann_Curry.jpg

When thinking about media and how it’s presented we can think of classic broadcast media. The anchor on the news station broadcasting news to millions of homes at 6pm and 11pm. Similarly this is the definition of broadcast media transmission as is follows a one-to-many approach[7]. When we think of a more collaborative atmosphere we think of communicative media transmission, which follows a many-to-many approach[7], where transmission comes from a source and from other transmitters. One example to understand communicative media transmission is when you see a town hall debate for a political office that invites cooperation with the audience or a live event on YouTube. Not only are candidates transmitting information, but the individuals in the crowd are transmitting information to the candidate and other members in the audience. Figure 5 shows a visual between broadcast and communicative media.

Figure 5: Broadcast or Communicative? (Attribution: A. W. Bates, Teaching in a digital age: Guidelines for designing teaching and learning. Licensed
under a CreativeCommons Attribution – NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, 2015)

This shows how technology is introduced into learning organizations, acting as the new medium between the source and the transmitter. The electronic grapevine or the grouping of different electronic mediums connecting organizational members in many different ways. One example is how most modern phones have the ability to check e-mail; this creates an electronic grapevine from your office to your home since e-mail can be available in the palm of your hand. Sure some might say this is a positive as you can be highly responsive in a fast-moving twenty-first century environment, while another might say with this grapevine you never escape from your work, which can be detrimental.

We have seen in learning organizations such as schools the advancement of technological communication. From online textbooks, to quick access of online journal articles, the use of computerized technology in school has and will continue to be present. One example of teaching and learning that has used the characteristics of both broadcast media and communicative media transmission is the use of the hybrid classroom. Hybrid classrooms as described by Penn State University is a transmission approach to delivering course content either separately or with connection face-face and online[8]. The advantages to hybrid classrooms or hybrid learning is that it reduces the seat time of individuals, and students can engage in authentic and collaborative learning experiences[8]; in addition, it accommodates the hours of adult learners allowing more flexibility with time. On the contrary, hybrid teaching can use a lot more resources than the traditional face-to-face method, and still be less integrative depending on class size, but the fact that an individual can choose to experience the class traditionally through a face-to-face method or with divergence through an online method is completely up to the students learning and their objective towards learning.

Traditional, Online, and Hybrid Teaching. (Attribution: Carson Babich, University of Windsor.)

Regardless of the media or medium as a leader or an educator in a learning organization, the medium must be beneficial to all learners, and help foster learning effectively. Depending on the type of study both lecture and online may not be the best forms of communication transmission. For example most high school music classes generally have brief lecturing and hardly any online component. Predominantly music class is experiential and authentic by working through sheet music and playing the instrument collaboratively with others in the class. As a leader you have to find the most effective way to harness the learning experience, and decide if the hybrid method will deliver that effective learning.

Activity: Elephant and the Blind Men

- Read the story

- Answer the questions below

- Feel free to work as an individual or in a group

- Retreived from: Elephant and the Blind Men (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.jainworld.com/literature/story25.htm

Elephant and the Blind Men

Once upon a time, there lived six blind men in a village. One day the villagers told them, “Hey, there is an
elephant in the village today.”

They had no idea what an elephant is. They decided, “Even though we would not be able to see it, let us
go and feel it anyway.” All of them went where the elephant was. Everyone of them touched the elephant.

“Hey, the elephant is a pillar,” said the first man who touched his leg.

“Oh, no! it is like a rope,” said the second man who touched the tail.

“Oh, no! it is like a thick branch of a tree,” said the third man who touched the trunk of the elephant.

“It is like a big hand fan” said the fourth man who touched the ear of the elephant.

“It is like a huge wall,” said the fifth man who touched the belly of the elephant.

“It is like a solid pipe,” Said the sixth man who touched the tusk of the elephant.

They began to argue about the elephant and everyone of them insisted that he was right. It looked like
they were getting agitated. A wise man was passing by and he saw this. He stopped and asked them, “What is the matter?”

They said, “We cannot agree to what the elephant is like.” Each one of them told
what he thought the elephant was like. The wise man calmly explained to them, “All of you are right. The
reason every one of you is telling it differently because each one of you touched the different part of the
elephant. So, actually the elephant has all those features what you all said.”

“Oh!” everyone said. There was no more fight. They felt happy that they were all right.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/educationleadershipmanagement/?p=405

Conclusion

In this chapter, we took a deep dive into communication and how it effects not only our organizational lives but our everyday lives. We discussed communication, the communication process and how to effectively and efficiently communicate to others. We also discussed communications role within learning organizations and how the technological medium has influenced a new change on how we communicate in learning organizations. With that said how did we do with our learning objectives for this chapter?

1. Communication is the act of sending messages either verbal or non-verbal from one person to another. Communication process is the encoding and decoding of messages.

2. Encoding is initiating the communication process, where decoding is interpreting the message, ready to offer feedback.

3. Effective and efficient communication in organizations is done through verbal, written, and non-verbal messaging. An effective rubric for ensuring good communication is giving and receiving constructive feedback.

4. The Hawthorne Effect started the idea of communication openness through interpersonal communication and communication richness.

5. Correlating media with transmission in teaching, divergent methods of online and hybrid classrooms have been modern advancements of learning within organizations.

At this point we are nearing the end of our journey of leadership and management within learning organizations. By now, we hope you have developed a view for your own principles on leadership and management, and after this chapter will use effective speaking, listening skills paired with assertiveness and supportive verbal communication to be future effective leaders within learning organizations.

References

1. Shannon, C., & Weaver, W. (1948). The mathematical theory of communication. In Openstax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:GZrSsO27@6/16-1-The-Process-of-Managerial-Communication

2. Openstax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:GZrSsO27@6/16-1-The-Process-of-Managerial-Communication

3. Openstax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:5Ag8ySvB@7/16-2-Types-of-Communications-in-Organizations

4. Openstax, Introduction to Business (2019, July 18). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/Tgl3H6iq@8.6:9fa5Rsnr@7/9-2-The-Hawthorne-Studies

5. Openstax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:GZrSsO27@6/16-1-The-Process-of-Managerial-Communication

6. Schermerhorn, J. R., & Wright, B. (2014). Management: Third Canadian Edition. Toronto, Ontario: John Wiley & Sons Canada

7. Bates, A. W. (2015). Teaching in a digital age: Guidelines for designing teaching and learning. Licensed under a CreativeCommons Attribution – NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, sec. 6.4. Retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/teachinginadigitalage/chapter/8-3-broadcast-vs-communicative-technologies/

8. Penn State University. (2019). What is hybrid learning? Retrieved from https://sites.psu.edu/hybridlearning/what-is-hybrid/

XI

Chapter 11: Multicultural Leadership

Pierre Trudeau declared in 1971 that Canada would become a multicultural nation. The Multiculturalism Act of 1988 was eventually passed by Prime Minister Brian Mulroney signifying Canada as the first nation to adopt a multiculturalism policy.

In this chapter we will return to the large scale ethno-cultural aspects of leadership and management through the understanding of multiculturalism within learning organizations. In many ways multicultural leadership draws inferences from leadership, management, ethics, social responsibility, motivation, decision-making, collaboration and communication. Placing multiculturalism at this point acts as a book-end and reminder of the path you have taken on this journey through leadership and management in a learning organization. Throughout this chapter we will discuss an introduction to workplace diversity and the types of diversity presented; in addition, we will provide a base understanding of legislation, ethical considerations, respecting the motivations of others, communicating diversity in teamwork, and the impact of diversified relationships in a global environment. Here are the learning objectives for this chapter:

1. Define diversity and different types of diversity concepts presented in the workplace.

2. Define what legislation has been passed that relates to multiculturalism, and diversity in the workplace.

3. Contextualize the process of respecting the rights and motivations of others.

4. Compare and contrast the impact of diverse and multicultural teams within learning organizations.

5. Define and contextualize the effect of diversity within a globalized marketplace.

Chapter Tips:

- What can you make of diversity from your previous experience?

- How has the law been effective in understanding diversity?

- Understand that different culture have different ways about communicating within a diverse atmosphere.

11.1 Introduction to Workplace Diversity

Before we define diversity, we must define what multiculturalism is. Multiculturalism has a broad definition as its impact spread through sociological, political, and colloquial use. To summarize, multiculturalism is the process of ethnic pluralism within a state or society through legal, social, and economic factors. The concept of ethnic pluralism means “more than one” ethnicity in a state or society (i.e. Canada or Canadian society), and how multiple ethnicities interact in the legal, social, and economic aspects of that state or society. With different ethnicities comes different identities and influences; diversity are the identity-based differences between people[1] and workplace diversity are the identity-based differences of processes or outcomes within a work environment.

Within workplace diversity, you have what is called managing diversity which refers to the action that a leader takes to ensure all members of an organization or workplace are treated fairly and valued within organizations[1]. As a leader within a learning organization, it is important that the learning goals you are working towards should go hand-in-hand with managing the diverse aspects of all your learners. With different ethnicities, backgrounds, and life experiences; it is important to develop a framework that is diverse-cognizant to ensure that learners are comfortable to learn in a diverse setting.

How does one see diversity to effectively manage it? One way to view diversity is through deep understanding of the types of diversity that are commonly present within organizations. Some topics at the onset of teamwork may be too personal to share and may not need to be presented; however, over time different surfaces of diversity may produce which can lead to a further understanding of an individual or group. Here is a set of different types of diversity that are present within organizations and everyday life[1]:

Types of Diversity (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC-BY 4.0 license)

Surface-level diversity

Diversity in the form of characteristics of individuals that are readily visible including, but not limited to, age, body size, visible disabilities, race or sex.

Deep-level diversity

Diversity in characteristics that are non-observable such as attitudes, values, and beliefs, such as religion.

Hidden diversity

Diversity in characteristics that are deep-level but may be concealed or revealed at discretion by individuals who possess them, such as sexual orientation.

When a leader or a manager is able to effectively manage diversity efficiently it can produce both economic and social benefits. With diversity in the workplace, one particular study by Cox and Blake conclude that diverse work organizations create a competitive advantage in areas of cost structures and human resources[2]. In addition, organizations that embrace a culturally diverse environment show benefits in three organizational areas[2]:

- Creativity.

- Problem Solving.

- Adapting to change.

Figure 1: Managing Cultural Diversity. (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC-BY 4.0 license)

However, there have been some reported negatives when the topic of diversity is brought up within organizations. One of the biggest challenges that face managers within diverse organizations is lower organizational attachment; which is when after diversity is presented in an organization, another group feels alienated[3]. An example of this can be the act of reverse discrimination within the workplace which is described as a dominant group receiving discrimination from a diverse class of citizens[3]. This can lead to a wedge in the organizational makeup between different diverse groups, eventually leading to a shortage of goals met.

This leads to the importance of managing diversity effectively ensuring all members regardless of dominance or marginalization be managed in a way that is fair, consistent, and valued. Not only can it avoid emotional rifts within your organization. It can help you keep out of trouble with the law, which is our next section in this chapter, dealing with legislation.

Review Questions:

1. Define multiculturalism and diversity?

2. What are the three types of diversity presented in an organizational structure?

3. Cox and Blake say that a diverse organizational environment is beneficial in what three organizational areas?

11.2 Understanding Legislation and Diversity

At this point in this chapter, we feel it is important to offer some insight of legislation that has been passed in regards to diversity. In today’s age the legal system is used in conjunction with diversity to combat discrimination in the workplace[3], and each country has their own ways on combating discrimination not only within organizations, but within civil society.

Canada

We previously mentioned at the beginning of the chapter that former Prime Minister, Pierre Trudeau declared that Canada will be a multicultural nation in 1971, followed by the adoption of the Multiculturalism Act of 1988 by Brian Mulroney. In between 1971 and 1988, we adopted the Canadian Human Rights Act (R. S. C., 1985, c. H-6) which purposes:

“[T]hat all individuals should have the opportunity with other individuals to make for themselves the lives that they are able and wish to have and to have their needs accommodated, consistent with their duties and obligations as members of society.”[4]

This act is the key legislative tool protecting individuals in Canadian society against discrimination based on an individual’s race, religion, age, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, marital status and others[4].

In regards to workplaces and organizations, sections 7 to 11 of the Canadian Human Rights Act focuses on employment within organizations. The act focuses on employment, hiring, wages, and value of work with an emphasis that it is discriminatory to refuse employment, collude against, provide unequal wages, or adjust the criterion of work relative to the skill[4]. Canada has a strong safety net in regards to preventing discriminatory practices in the workplace, leaders and managers within all organizations are cognizant of the laws presented which aim to protect all members.

United States

The United States have a deep history with discrimination and legislation; not to mention, a rich history of legislation with such venerated articles as the Constitution of the United States. The acknowledgement of discrimination and the legislation to hinder discrimination came about over two decades before Canada with the Civil Rights Act of1964(H. R. 7152) which purposes that a “[prohibition] of discrimination in public places, [providing] the integration of schools and other public facilities”[5].

The Civil Rights Bill was passed in the Chambers of the US Senate, 1964. This work is in the public domain in the United States because it is a work prepared by an officer or employee of the United States Government as part of that person’s official duties under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the US Code. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:US_Senate_Session_Chamber.jpg

Within the workplace key titles and amendments have been introduced and put into law since 1964. Enforced by the U.S. Equal Employment and Opportunity Commission, circa 1964, administers and enforces the civil rights laws against workplace discrimination[6]. Below is a list of key diversity-related legislation:

Key Diversity Related Legislation (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC-BY 4.0 license)

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964

Created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission with the primary role of making it illegal to discriminate against someone in the workplace due to their race, national origin, sex, disability, religion, or pregnancy status.

Equal Pay Act of 1963

Mandates that men and women must be given the same pay for equal work.

Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA)

Forbids discrimination against individuals who are age 40 and above.

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

Prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities in employment, public services, public accommodations, and in telecommunications.

Pregnancy Discrimination Act (PDA)

Prohibits any discrimination as it relates to pregnancy, including hiring, firing, compensation, training, job assignment, insurance, or any other employment conditions.

Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA)

Grants new parents up to 12 weeks of paid or unpaid leave to care for the new child, and gives nursing mothers the right to express milk on workplace premises.

Europe

Within the European Union (EU), anti-discrimination laws within the workplace are also present. Beginnings of anti-discrimination were founded in the Treaty of Amsterdam in 1997 with Article 6a in the document stating that members within the EU are to “combat discrimination based on sex, racial or ethnic origin, religion or belief, disability, age or sexual orientation”[7].

Since the Treaty of Amsterdam, acknowledgement of discrimination in places of work saw the adoption of the EU Employment Equality Directive to extend a protection of rights against discrimination “by explicitly obliging the Member States to prohibit discrimination in employment on the grounds of religion or belief, age, disability, and sexual orientation”[8]. These directives act as a check and balance to ensure all member nations within the EU are following the directives of preventing discrimination in the workplace. Another key impact of this legislation is that it is multilateral (encompassing more than one country) in its approach, here are some of the countries where this multilateral approach applies[9]:

- Austria

- Belgium

- Denmark

- France

- Germany

- Italy

- Netherlands

- Spain

- Sweden

- United Kingdom

Why Know About Legislation?

It is important to know about legislation as a leader within a learning organization or any organization to develop an understanding of working within the laws of your country or a country in the global marketplace. Legislation is important in identifying the rules and ethics that govern an organization, referring back to chapter 6 we can see how basic formats of ethics codes within organizations get their ideas from the legislation passed in a countries history. This presents an interdisciplinary look on how political and legal actions have an effect on us as leaders and managers within learning organizations.

Review Question:

1. What are three key legislative documents (in Canada, United States, and European Union) which help promote diversity within the workplace?

2. Why is it important to know about legislation in a learning organization?

11.3 Respecting the Rights of All

The goal with workplace diversity is that all members can work cohesively together, and with the knowledge of legislation that has been passed, respecting the rights of all in the workplace is a common approach to organizations. However, within the workplace there is an adjustment or a caveat that acts as a checks and balance on the side of the organization referred to as reasonable accommodation. Reasonable accommodation in one way means the employer must make a wholesome attempt to allow for differences amongst the workforce[10]. Another way it can be viewed is making accommodations in the workforce based on proven need or acceptable measure (i.e. a form in some instances). The United Nations in their Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities describes reasonable accommodation as:

“[N]ecessary and appropriate modification and adjustments not imposing a disproportionate or undue burden, where needed in a particular case, to ensure persons with disabilities the enjoyment or exercise on an equal basis with others of all human rights and fundamental freedoms”[11]

We will now focus on some areas where accommodation and reasonable accommodation can be found and used within an organizational setting. Furthermore, discuss some challenges within the workplace that can be presented in the workplace that can be remedied by reasonable accommodation and the legislation passed.

People with Disabilities

Within Canada, the meeting of needs for persons with a disability is noted in section 17 of Canadian Human Rights Act and asks that needs for a disability go through an approval process, once the process is approved the request to accommodate disability is put in action[11]. Essentially this follows the reasonable accommodation standard, if the request based on the Canadian Human Rights Act is deemed to be approved it will be approved. For example if there is a building on a premises that has no wheelchair accessibility, someone could send in a request to the Canadian Human Rights Commission, which then, if the commission deems that the building must accommodate wheelchair access, the building must comply under the legislation.

This can get tricky if it is a request that is deemed not sufficient or unapproved by the Canadian Human Rights Commission. This presents a challenging contrast as the person with disability needs a particular service, but the law deems it unnecessary, which a contrarian or devil’s advocate would say the Canadian Human Rights Act of respecting all is unconstitutional.

Regardless of the legislation attached most instances (such as the example provided in paragraph one) are acceptable requests to the Canadian Human Rights Commission and fall under the action of reasonable accommodation. As a leader within an organization the role you could take on is if you see something within your premises or someone approaches you with an issue about their own or someone else’s disability, the best action is to refer to a your legal team, refer to your code of ethics, or recommend this process to a higher level in the organization for action. As leaders we want to ensure all disabilities are accommodated and issues pertaining to disabilities resolved, therefore concise and consistent steps must be taken to ensure success.

People with Diverse Religious Practices

In our modern and global workforce, a leader or manager must manage different religions and beliefs within an organization. The concept of religion within an organization relates to the holidays an organization, state or society observe. Within Canada most organizations, follow the public holidays outlined by the federal government. The Government of Canada has outlined 10 public holidays, they are as follows[12]:

Image: Julian Paparella, Canada: A beacon of multiculturalism and welcome for the world. Link: https://saltandlighttv.org/blogfeed/getpost.php?id=76464

- New Year’s Day – January 1st

- Good Friday – Friday, mid to late April

- Victoria Day – Monday, late May

- Canada Day – July 1st

- Civic Holiday – Monday, early August

- Labour Day – Monday, early September

- Thanksgiving Day – Monday, mid-October

- Remembrance Day – November 11th

- Christmas Day – December 25th

- Boxing Day – December 26th

Now you can see this list outlines the general holidays such as Christmas and Good Friday, but what about other days of observance such as Ramadan and Eid al-Fitr for the Muslim faith; Passover, Rosh Hashanah, and Chanukah for people of Jewish faith; or Kawanzaa for members of the African Diaspora. Easter Monday is an observed holiday in Canada, but only in a few provinces and territories, and what about holidays and traditions practiced by our indigenous people of Canada? As a leader, your actions in exercising reasonable accommodation are paramount; although your position in an organization may not change the laws on holidays for time off, you can be instrumental in acknowledging and accepting adjustments to the rule. Allowing organizational amendments for different traditions can be done by allowing a couple hours away from work to worship, extend dress and uniform requirements, provide prayer and meditation rooms, and be accommodating to dietary issues[13]. These actions will provide you with the ability to effectively manage diversity and accommodate all different faiths within an organization.

People with a Different Race, Gender, and Sexual Orientation

Within organizations in Canada, we have an anti-discrimination measure as noted in the aforementioned Human Rights Act that prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, and sexual orientation. Inside the workplace the same rules apply especially when discussing wages in the workplace. Section 11 of the Canadian Human Rights Act states that “It is discriminatory practice for an employer to establish or maintain differences in wages between male and female employees employed in the same establishment who are performing work of equal value”[14]. Although it does not explicitly mention race in this section the implication is that regardless of race male or female, you are to be paid the same.

In our modern landscape, people have many different genders that don’t align with their sexual orientation. It may be more of a process as although not explicitly stated, gender protection falls under the general purpose of the act.

How do we manage this aspect as leaders? Well it will be important to really know your organizational members and being reasonable with requests. If someone, would like to be called a different name or alternate name in substitution of their given name that can be seen as reasonable. However, some instances may not be seen as reasonable, and a civil discussion and consensus must be reached. There are many goals within an organization that need to be reached by all different members, and it is best to resolve any conflicts based on race, sex, and gender efficiently and effectively for both parties to return to a cohesive unit. If issues cannot be resolved, consulting the code of ethics, and the Canadian Human Rights Commission may be necessary to mediate the issue.

Discrimination

With all of these practices in place, we still hear stories of discrimination in the workplace. From disability discrimination, race discrimination, sexual discrimination, and gender discrimination even in this modern era, organizations can experience issues with these aspects. Noted, in the 21st century discrimination has been lowered compared to recent decades, but how do we effectively prepare ourselves as leaders to be proactive in eliminating discrimination. We have outlined some steps to help notice and proactively remedy discrimination in the workplace:

1. Know the signs – Be proactive in knowing the signs of discrimination in the workplace, even if it may seem harmless, intervene and take appropriate action.

2. Consult your organizations code of ethics – Refer to the code of ethics for an organization, and understand how a discriminatory act hurts the individual and the mission, vision and values you set out for your organization.

3. Engage in civil discourse – If different parties are involved engage the parties to discuss the issue and mediate the circumstances in a calm and civil manner.

4. Use expert power (but only when needed) – Within a civil discourse it is better to use active listening over anything else, but do intervene when a situation calls to use expertise to guide towards a conclusion.

5. Consult a human rights commission – Either municipal, province/state, or federal. If a situation needs to be delegated to a human rights commission, don’t avoid it, take action. Ideally you would like to avoid getting to this point, but if it’s necessary, it can protect you and the organization in the long run.

6. Always follow up on issues of discrimination – Even after the event has passed and in some cases tempers cooled, it is always best to have a follow up on the situation to ensure measures that were implemented are working and members are pleased with the results. If members are still not pleased, you may need to consult again and engage in more discourse. By actively following up on issues, this shows members on both sides of the discussion that you care about the issue and want to effectively manage to an agreeable conclusion.

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/educationleadershipmanagement/?p=415

11.4 Team Diversity and Multicultural Teams

When we discuss teamwork and collaboration, we refer back to chapter nine when we discussed teamwork within organizations and the use of cooperative learning within learning organizations. Moving further what are some thoughts on diversity and multicultural teams within an organizational structure? Rock and Grant support the idea of multicultural and diverse teams and is key for the boosting of intellectual potential, helping to keep biases and assumptions in check[15]. When reflecting on aspects of indigenous pedagogy, the idea of the respect for group processes and a sense of community is important to fostering knowledge within indigenous communities.

One important aspect that relates to working within multicultural teams is the communication aspect that is present in all teams. We discussed the forms of communication and how communication is used in a collaborative nature; however, multicultural teams can find challenges within one cultures difference to another cultures communication process. Some cultures use direct communication which is essentially the use of communication tools through the direct words they use with literal interpretations[16], other cultures use indirect communication which is the use of non-verbal behaviours and implications to convey meaning within the communication process[16]. Here is a general outline of the differences between cultures with direct and indirect forms of communication, and examples of some cultures that are both direct and indirect communicators.

Direct Cultures

Indirect Cultures

- Considered to be low-context.

- Succinct and accurate verbal speak.

- Be truthful in any situation (speak your mind).

- Cultures include: Canadian, American, British, and Australian.

- Considered to be high-context.

- Elaborate and descriptive actions of non-verbal communication.

- Best to be polite than to be truthful.

- Cultures include: Russians, Italians, Brazilians, and African Nations.

With this understanding of different ways cultures communicate within a workforce and how it can present challenges, it also presents a very important opportunity to check biases and assumptions of an individual or a group where different cultures are amalgamated. Rock and Grant outline a study done by the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology which concludes that groups from diverse background completed a task with greater efficiency and with less errors compared to the homogeneous group[17]. They also cited a study in Texas where diverse teams were able to accurately price stocks more correctly than homogeneous groups[17]. Although the methodology and data collection were not stated, the conclusions found that when errors occurred in deliberation that members of diverse groups worked more efficiently to remedy the situation[17].

This might have to do when diverse groups get together and traditional norms are cast aside, one of the traditional norms within any society can be confirmation bias. As discussed in chapter 8, distinctions in cultural world-view can be beneficial to the success of an organization. Perhaps the diverse group moved away from confirmation bias and engaged in a wholesome discussion, leading to a more successful outcome. With teamwork, it is important to remember the core tenants of what makes a good team and add in the understanding of a multicultural and diverse dynamic. It only leads to a richness within an organization and progress towards goals, or in the case of learning organizations, increases learning richness and progress towards mastery.

Review Questions:

1. Define direct and indirect communication?

2. What are some cultures that engage in direct communication? Indirect communication?

3. What is a potential outcome when cultures do not cast aside traditional outcomes?

11.5 Leadership in a Modern and Diverse Society

As mentioned in previous chapters, the need for effective leadership in a modern and diverse society is imperative in this 21st century, globalized environment. Within this framework we discuss the concept of cultural and global diversity within the framework of organizations, and how as leaders we need to be cognizant of the ever-changing diverse landscape.

Within culture and global diversity we refer to the idea of cultural intelligence. Cultural intelligence is a competency that allows individuals from cultures to function effectively in other cultural environments[18]. Essentially cultural intelligence is the ability to be aware of other cultures and their impact on your own culture, in addition being self-aware (Maslow) about your own culture and the impact on other cultures. Here are some stages one might face when adapting into a new culture:

- Confusion

- Small Victories

- The Honeymoon

- The Irritation and Anger

- Reality

With these steps confusion is a given, since your life up to this point has been one view, and gaining small victories can be understanding basic language and maybe forging a few relationships. At this point you feel like you have been accepted by the culture, then you realize this is only the tip of the iceberg as learning a language and forging relationships doesn’t develop your understanding of the social, political and economic factors of a culture. This leads to frustration and eventually to a reality of knowing a culture and the pros and cons associated with that culture. Understanding cultural intelligence in this way develops an understanding the impact of you in that culture and self-reflecting on your own culture inside of a new culture.

This leads to a question if management and leadership theories are universal? Geert Hofstede would say there is no universal theory to management and that management theories closely relate to a particular culture[19]. We can see even from the leadership and management theories presented in the early chapters, coming from a North American perspective, seem to follow the American economic model from the early 20th century, and American principles on economy and business. When understanding how different cultures interact with leadership ideals we use the culture insights research from Project GLOBE. House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, and Gupta developed the GLOBE study of 62 countries and how each culture reacts to leadership traits, organizational values and relationship along cross-cultural lines[20]. Figure 2 outlines the results of different cultures and how they relate to the different traits.

Figure 2: Culture Insights from Project GLOBE. (Attribution: Robert J. House, Paul J. Hanges, Mansour Javidan, Peter W. Dorfman, and Vipin Gupta. Culture, Leadership and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies, 2004)

Activity: Disputation (Debate):

Woodcut carved by Johann von Armssheim (1483). Portrays a disputation between Christian and Jewish scholars (Soncino Blaetter, Berlin, 1929. Jerusalem, B. M. Ansbacher Collection). This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author’s life plus 100 years or fewer. From https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Disputation.jpg

Disputations (Latin: Disputatio) are formalized debates that were common in the Middle Ages and are designed to establish a truth between two competing sides in the realm of philosophy, theology, and the sciences.

In this activity three teams will be formed, one team will take the side of pro (agree with the proposed resolution), and the the other team will be contra (disagree with the proposed resolution) and the third team will be the magistrate (judging the outcome). Regardless of your personal feelings on the topic, a good debator is able to construct an argument from both sides, this makes one valuable for creating a rebuttal for both sides.

Disputation:

Fellow orators and debators let it be resolved: diversity in organizations is a perfect solution to organizational effectiveness.

– Pro and Contra teams will have five minutes to shape their argument.

– After the five minutes the Pro team will make their case no longer than five minutes

– After the Pro team, the Contra team will make their case.

– Pro will be allowed a 2 minute rebuttal to the Contra case (be sure to take notes while the other team is talking).

– Contra will make a final 2 minute rebuttal to conclude the disputation.

– Magistrate are to listen and collectively come up with a winner on the debate. Keep in mind the ethics, logic and persuasion of the Pro and Contra teams.

Conclusion

We can really learn from the concept of diversity and multiculturalism to understand learning within learning organizations. When we attempt to foster learning either through leadership techniques, management techniques, social entrepreneurship, ethical considerations, decision-making, teamwork or communication; it is important to keep a diverse mindset, and understand where you place yourself in a diverse culture, and to be self-aware of where a culture places you. This chapter acted as a reminder of our journey as we near the end of leadership and management within a learning organization, and provides a reminder of large issues that are imperative to being successful leaders in a modern and diverse environment. How did we do with our learning objectives?

1. Diversity is the identity-based differences between people, diversity concepts within organizations are workplace diversity and managing diversity.

2. Canada passed the Canadian Human Rights Act (R. S. C., 1985, c. H-6) which allows individuals to pursue a life they desire without restrictions based on race, gender, sexual orientation, ability, religion and others. Other countries have similar legislation.

3. Using the concept of reasonable accommodation and understanding the steps to acknowledge, delegate, and remedy situations or discrimination in the workplace.

4. Understanding diversity and cultures through direct and indirect communication can help shape the learning process within different individuals to progress towards mastery.

5. The use of cultural intelligence will be beneficial to understanding cultures in a globalized marketplace, more succinctly being self-aware of your standing inside your culture and other cultures.

On this journey we have developed a holistic understanding about leadership and management and its impact not only on yourself or learners you are developing, but its impact on a global scale and in different cultural communities. Please reflect on this chapter as the impact of learning and the fostering of learning as a leader is an important role to take away as you move on into the real world. Once ready advance to the twelfth and final chapter where we revive aspects of the leadership and management and discuss if there is truly a different between the two?

References

1. Openstax, Organizational Behavior (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/LZQauaxb@5.3:n3cSC9sD@6/5-1-An-Introduction-to-Workplace-Diversity

2. Cox, T. H., & Blake, S. (1991). Managing cultural diversity: Implications for organizational competitiveness. The Executive 5(3), 45-56. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/4165021.pdf?refreqid=excelsior:6e5ce5967a8a3d38d820d5f6803c3b25

3. Openstax, Organizational Behavior (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/LZQauaxb@5.3:dqdBmNy_@7/5-4-Challenges-of-Diversity

4. Canadian Human Rights Act , R. S. C. 1985, c H-6. Retrieved from https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/h-6/fulltext.html

5. Civil Rights Act, H. R. 7152, 1964. Retrieved from https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=97#

6. Openstax, Organizational Behavior (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/LZQauaxb@5.3:dqdBmNy_@7/5-4-Challenges-of-Diversity

7. European Union: Council of the European Union, Treaty of Amsterdam amending the treaty of the European Union, the treaties the European communities and related acts, 10 November, 1997, p. 26, Retrieved from https://www.europarl.europa.eu/topics/treaty/pdf/amst-en.pdf

8. Tymowski, J. (2016). The employment equality directive: European implementation assessment. European Parliamentary Research Service, p. 1. Retrieved from http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2016/536346/EPRS_STU(2016)536346_EN.pdf

9. Government of Great Britain (n. d.). Countries in the EU and EAA. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/eu-eea

10. Openstax, Business Ethics (2019, May 6). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/kUrGbuHs@4.2:dXXQJfuJ@3/8-2-Accommodating-Different-Abilities-and-Faiths

11. UN General Assembly, Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 6 December 2006, A/RES/61/106. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/disabilities/documents/convention/convention_accessible_pdf.pdf

12. Canadian Human Rights Act, R. S. C. 1985, c H-6. Retrieved from https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/h-6/fulltext.html

13. Government of Canada. (2019). Public holidays. Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/revenue-agency/services/tax/public-holidays.html

14. Openstax, Business Ethics (2019, May 6). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/kUrGbuHs@4.2:dXXQJfuJ@3/8-2-Accommodating-Different-Abilities-and-Faiths

15. Canadian Human Rights Act, R. S. C. 1985, c H-6. Retrieved from https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/h-6/fulltext.html

16. Rock, D., & Grant, H. (2016). Why diverse teams are smarter. The Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2016/11/why-diverse-teams-are-smarter

17. Joyce, C. (2012). The impact of direct and indirect communication. The Independent Voice. Retrieved from https://uiowa.edu/conflictmanagement/sites/uiowa.edu.conflictmanagement/files/Direct%20and%20Indirect%20Communication.pdf

18. Rock, D., & Grant, H. (2016). Why diverse teams are smarter. The Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2016/11/why-diverse-teams-are-smarter

19. Openstax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:ifTG0E5k@5/15-6-Multicultural-Teams

20. Hofstede, G. (1993). Cultural constraints in management theories. The Executive 7(1), 81-94. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/4165110.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Abb86a3ee4dabd341a558f3a4461ee703

21. House, R. J.; Hanges, P. J.; Mansour, J.; Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. (2004). Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.

XII

Chapter 12: Leadership and Management Redux

Along this journey what are some specific characteristics that separate a leader from a manager? Is it as clear cut as we make it out to be?

We have reached the final stage in our leadership and management journey, this chapter will act as a restoration or a redux of leadership and management. We will bring back our ideas from the beginning of our journey to this point as a reflection. John Dewey says that reflection at its core is the combining of observation and memory, and to actively recall what happened in the past[1]. This chapter will attempt to bring back your previous ideas of leadership and management and converge them with your current ideas of leadership and management. Here are the learning objectives for this chapter:

1. Contextualize how the historical understanding of leadership and management affects the future of leadership and management.

2. Define the achievement of organizational culture in a learning organization

3. Is there a difference between leadership and management? Develop and critique a complete definition of leadership and management.

Chapter Tips:

- Use previous chapters of the text to make an understanding of leadership and management at this final stage.

- Use your map from Chapter 1 for reference.

- Develop your own conclusion on leadership and management.

12.1 Leadership and Management: Past and Future

The great French revolutionary Napoleon Bonaparte once said that “A leader is a dealer in hope”[2]. When looking into the past about the understanding of leadership we can trace concepts all the way back to the age of Antiquity, Roman Empire, Renaissance, and the Age of Enlightenment to find small pieces of understanding about the ideas of leadership.

Plato and Aristotle – School of Athens. (Attribution: Raphael 1509, This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author’s life plus 100 years or fewer. Retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg)

Aristotle

In the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle claims that through practical wisdom one sees truth, and one who deliberates their practical wisdom effectively is the basis for acting good[3]. This resonates that the idea of pursuing wisdom to see truth leads to a virtuous deed. This follows the idea of a leader inside of a learning organization, as leaders or managers, you should not feel you have to lead but that you want to lead, and that you want to use knowledge that builds towards truth creating good in society. Aristotle states: “The happy life is thought to be virtuous; now a virtuous life requires exertion”[3], Michael Nelson sees this quote as the idea that happiness is not for the fun but for satisfaction and accomplishment, concluding that successful leaders are happy and content which make them effective leaders[4]. When we look at a learning organization such as a school, for the most part educators are there because they enjoy knowledge, learning, and passing the learning on to prospective learners. It is that lineage of knowledge that truly makes leaders in learning organizations happy and virtuous.

Francis Bacon, Viscount St. Alban (Attribution: John Vanderbank, 1731?, after a portrait by an unknown artist (circa 1618), Public domain works must be out of copyright in both the United States and in the source country of the work in order to be hosted on the Commons. If the work is not a U.S. work, the file must have an additional copyright tag indicating the copyright status in the source country. Retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Francis_Bacon#/media/File:Francis_Bacon,_Viscount_St_Alban_from_NPG_(2).jpg)

Francis Bacon

In the famous authors work The Essays first published in 1601, Bacon writes on a host of different topics from society, to science, to education, to love and mischief. In his discussion about honour and reputation he discusses that envy is the detriment to honour, and that the individuals including past Roman and English kings as great leaders of the battlefield; due to the sacrifices they made for the country over themselves[5]. This takes virtue one step further, explaining that leadership is a selfless act. To be a leader and to truly lead another individual or group, you have to take something away from yourself to help another. Have it be time, effort, or physical ability, you must be willing to commit a sacrifice for the greater good. To foster learning as a leader in an organization, you must be willing to sacrifice your time, effort, ideals, and convictions on the hope that learning is fostered. This relates to the Napoleon quote as leadership and management in a learning organization or any other organization is requires a sacrifice for the good and a sense of positive hope for the people within a society.

From Past to Future

So what does the past tell us about leadership now and in the future? First it tells us that a leader must be ethically sound and enjoy their art, in addition, a leader must be willing to sacrifice comforts to achieve goals and objectives. This relates to the idea of a leader managing for specific outcomes that are morally sound and attempt to achieve goals outside the comfort realm. Sigler outlines three outcomes of managers within organizations and what is needed to achieve success[6]:

- Moving from process and activities to results

- A change in paradigms for learning organizations

- Leader as a catalyst – pushing the organization to further point than previous for growth.

Leaders are to foster growth, much like a leader in a learning organization is to foster growth in learning; this means moving beyond actions, showing results, and reflecting on past activities to show the learning that occurred in the activity. With a shift in paradigms towards a reflective focus, the leader becomes the great motivator to push the organization further through their will, determination and sacrifice for the good of individual, team, and organizational growth.

Looking into the future, we see that leadership and management will require the same tenants of the past but with an action that understands the world and what drives the world in a modern age. This action is called innovation which is the advancement or ‘newness’ in development of processes or products within an organization[7]. Innovation within learning organizations such as a school setting focuses more on the processes of divergent methods with teaching in schools, embracing and enhancing technological classrooms, and re-framing the focus of a learning institution to be more reflective and actionable. These processes relate to management of innovation which includes change in management and managing processes that enhance innovation[7]. Figure 1 shows a list of the 5 C’s of management innovation:

The 5 C’s

1. Casting a Wide Net
2. Creating Newness

3. Creating Culture

4. Communicating Knowledge

5. Changing with Courage.

Figure 1: Innovation Management. (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC-BY 4.0 license)

Review Questions:

1. What outcomes does Sigler outline that managers need to achieve success in an organization?

2. What is the definition of innovation?

3. What are the five C’s of innovation management?

12.2 Achievement of Organizational Culture in a Learning Organization

How do we define achievement in a learning organization? At this point, one aspect you might say is that learners achieve their goals with learning objectives over an amount of time. However, let’s take a more applied approach in the different processes that might be needed to achieve organizational success. Here is a list of different processes of organizational culture that have an impact on the future of learning organizations:

- Hiring Philosophy

- Institutional Policies

- Budgeting Process

- Rewards

- Decision-Making Style

Hiring philosophy in many ways is how you, as a leader or manager align yourself in how to hire individuals. For example, when you see a resume of an individual, does their ability to be proficient in Microsoft Office offer an advantage to job prospect, or do you see it as an expectation in the modern age of computer and tech, and that space on a resume can be substituted by a more advanced skill? Do you feel a cover letter is important? Do you see attaching an application form to a resume redundant? These can have a factor in how you effectively recruit and hire members in your organization, this leads to institutional policies of how directives of government and society affect the direction of a learning organization. Will a learning organization guide all of their programs with a divergent method or take on a previous method? This can all depend on internal factors (i.e. change in upper management) or external factors (i.e. change in government and legislation) to influence how institutional policies will be shaped.

Budgeting process is how learning organizations will budget programs within their walls. The challenge with this process is that since the 2008 recession, most nations have bounced back financially, but are more fiscally aware and have not left a savings-model. The classic corporate philosophy of maximize productivity + minimize wage = maximal profit seems to be a trend in some learning organizations, and we must understand this trend and not let the goal of learning fall to the wayside. Therefore, a more learning focused budget on using funds to enhance learning will be render a more utilitarian outcome as outcomes will be dispersed through the organization and community, as opposed to strict saving which benefits only a few.

Rewards mean thoughtful rewards in a twenty-first-century framework. How will we reward learners in a modern society? First thing, we must acknowledge the growing loss of work due to external factors such as technology, and a growing population. Rewards in a modern sense means tailoring learning authentically and experientially to help a learner gain further workplace and societal skills, and profit financially from their achievement of learning outcomes. Of course one should not forget as a leader that passion and care should be paramount, rewards still play a significant factor which leads to the decisions made by leaders affecting these processes. Decision-making styles follows what we discussed in chapter 8, and applies it to managing achievement for the future of a learning organization. Effectively being able to share important ideas and processes for success will be paramount in how we impact future learning organizations.

We refer back to Peter Senge and his prediction of learning organizations in which he outlines a social responsibility of organizations to lead and manage effectively in the areas of diversity, and environmental responsibility[8]; he points out a focused understanding and deep habits of through as opposed to a quick-fix both economically and philosophically[8]. This relates to the idea of not just listing the processes but using the processes effectively and efficiently to lead, manage and guide the learning organization into the future.

Review Questions:

1. What are the different processes of organizational culture that have an impact on learning organizations?

2. What does Senge outline as his prediction of the learning organization?

12.3 Is There a Difference between Management and Leadership? (The Redux)

As previously stated, a redux can be a restoration of a particular idea or concept. So let’s restore our ideas of leadership and management. In chapters 1 through 3 we discussed leadership and management, and what others defined leadership and management to be.

Figure 6 (From Chapter 1) Separate and Similar Descriptors of Leadership and Management

Looking at this section do you feel leadership and management follow this Venn diagram ideal of leadership and management can be both similar and dissimilar? Or do you feel leadership and management are their own ideals. Both ideals have differences but are both needed to be an effective member within an organization. We described management as the planning, organizing, directing, and controlling the systems of an organization; however, to get to managing stage of an organization, it must start through a sort of social influence, an idea or a relationship between individuals that start at the onset of a project or organization. Sometimes this influence starts even before you enter an organization or workforce; it may be a world view or specific philosophy you develop either naturally or through social influence.

One way to look at leadership and management is an iceberg, in many ways this can relate to Edward T. Hall’s Cultural Iceberg Model which follows our behavior, and external beliefs (the top of the iceberg, seen) are supported by values, thought patterns, and internal beliefs (below the surface, unseen)[9]. To an onlooker of an organization the iceberg model can apply; we can see and observe systems in place within an organization, and we know that a specific mission, vision, and value is supporting the management, but we cannot tangibly observe a relationship, social influence, or phenomena. Figure 2 shows the model of leadership and management using the iceberg model.

Figure 2: The Iceberg of Leadership and Management (Attribution: Carson Babich, University of Windsor. Image from: Continuity SA: https://www.continuitysa.com/beware-iceberg-business-continuity-important-not-outsource/)

It’s not only what is seen within the organization, it’s what is not seen that can be a catalyst for creating a successful organization. Within the realm of the learning organization we find that through effective leadership and management, proper communication channels, ethics, learning theories, job design, decision-making and teamwork all relate to Peter Senge’s five disciplines[10]:

- Personal Mastery – Building your leadership ability through scaffolding

- Mental Models – Natural and sociological influences

- Building a Shared Vision – Collaborative and communicative approach to the future

- Team Learning – Using communication, decision-making, and collaboration to develop a collective ideal and avoid group-think.

- Systems Learning – Building up the iceberg moving from leadership to mission, vision, and values and using all of those factors to run learning systems in your organization.

Moving forward in your future management and leadership endeavours, the most important takeaway is that an iceberg is not an iceberg without it’s above the surface and below the surface. Much like an organization is nothing without the characteristics of leadership and management, and yes one part of the iceberg is visible while the other is invisible, but they complement each other, much like leadership and management on the surface can be different but they complement each other and work towards the same goals within a learning organization.

Activity: Leadership Map Before and After

Step 1: Use your Leadership and Management Map in Chapter 1.4 from earlier

Step 2: Using the information that you know now, develop a new, restructure, or keep the same Map from Chapter 1.4 into a new map below

Questions to Consider

- Did anything change from your initial assessment of leadership and management?

- If so, how do you see leadership and management within a learning organization?

- Do you feel further learning can be achieved in this realm? How would you achieve it?

Conclusion

In summation, the role of leadership and management can work in different capacities, yet be the same when developing an organization. Leadership is nothing if it doesn’t build a systems based management structure, and management would have no support without the work of leadership being the backbone of ideals. How did we do on our learning objectives for this final chapter on leadership and management?

1. Being ethically sound and sacrificing comforts for goals and objectives (classical ideals) lead to one drive to innovate and make better for society (contemporary ideals).

2. Developing and systematically organizing hiring philosophies, institutional policies, budgeting processes, rewards, and decision-making styles are effective measures for managing organizations into the future.

3. Leadership and Management are both the same and different. Using the iceberg analogy and the five disciplines, leadership and management are both independent and dependent from each other. Especially when achieving goals in a learning organization.

To offer parting words after this journey, it is important to understand that whatever leadership or management style you choose it has to relate to your inherent beliefs. Essentially the iceberg below the surface is not just made one day, it is shaped and cultivated throughout life through natural and social occurrences, assumptions, and inherent beliefs. It is very important to find your own iceberg and self-reflect on what your beliefs mean to your own leadership and how you develop your management style. As prospective leaders and managers in society, it is highly important to locate yourself and cultivate that leadership style to become successful in a future society.

Unit 4 Reflection

An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/educationleadershipmanagement/?p=805

References

1. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York, NY: Macmillan.

2. BrainyQuote. (n.d). Napoleon Bonaparte quotes. Retrieved from https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/napoleon_bonaparte_106371

3. Aristotle. (1999). The nicomachean ethics. (W. D. Ross, Trans.). Kitchener, ON: Batoche Books. (Original work published 340 BC). Retrieved from https://socialsciences.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3ll3/aristotle/Ethics.pdf

4. Nelson, M. (2015). Aristotle and leadership. University of the Cumberlands, 1-4. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318280859_Aristotle_and_Leadership

5. Bacon, F. (2014). The essays (University of Adelade, Trans.) Adelade, SA: The University of Adelade Library. (Original work published 1601). Retrieved from https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/bacon/francis/b12e/complete.html

6. Sigler, W. (2007). Managing for outcomes. Washington D.C.: American Association of College Registrars and Admissions Officers.

7. Openstax, Principles of Management (2019, May 31). Retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/w6yyq31c@8.84:64NAdG7X@5/18-1-MTI-Its-Importance-Now-and-In-the-Future

8. Senge, P. M. (2003). Taking personal change seriously: The impact of organizational learning on management practice. Academy of Management Executive, 17(2), 47-50.

9. Hall, E. T. (1976). Cultural iceberg model. Retrieved from https://www.spps.org/cms/lib/MN01910242/Centricity/Domain/125/iceberg_model_3.pdf

10. Senge. P. M. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art & practice of the learning organization. New York, NY: Doubleday/ Currency.

1

This is where you can add appendices or other back matter.

2

Glossary

Active Listening: Transmitting the message from the sender, and taking action to help someone say what they actually mean.

Autocratic Leaders: Directive leaders, allow little input or discussion from subordinates.

Behavioural Management Theory: A theory developed by Chester Barnhard uses the concepts that approaches to the workplace should be in the interest of company and worker. Workers are viewed as psychological and social beings.

Boundary Dynamic: A delicate boundary between strategy, stakeholder management, and organizational management.

Bounded Rationality: The notion that challenging of complex issues that we as leaders cannot fully grasp, we are unable to be rational about the situation and be incapable of understanding an alternative

Brainstorming: The generating of a variety of solutions or possible outcomes for an effective decision.

Broadcast Media Transmission: Follows a one-to-many approach (i.e. a newscast).

Bureaucratic Theory: A theory developed by Max Weber explains the formal hierarchy in organizations in which tasks are delegated.

Business Ethics: An applied ethic; focuses on real-world situations in the environment where transactions occur.

Canadian Human Rights Act: A Canadian federal act passed in 1985 which requires all individuals have the opportunity to pursue life and work without being discriminated against an individual’s race, religion, age, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, marital status and others.

Charisma: Compelling interest or charm.

Charismatic Leadership: A leader who uses charisma to influence members within an organization to bring about change.

Checks and Balances: Within an education context; it is when the students check and balance the outlines from the professor, and the professor checks and balances the expectations of the students.

Civil Rights Act: A federal act passed in the United States in 1964 which proposes the prohibition of discrimination in public places (i.e. schools, government building etc.).

Classic Entrepreneur: Inherent drive to start a business based on an original idea.

Code of Ethics: A piece of organizational legislature that provides employees with the knowledge and expectations, responsibilities, and behaviours towards fellow employees, customers and suppliers.

Coercive Power: A leader who uses negative outcomes to garner results.

Cognitivism: The belief of identifying the mental process; internal and conscious representations of the world.

Communication Process: When a communicator encodes a message and receiver decodes a message

Communication Richness: How effective and holistic the communication media is depending on the communication tool used.

Communication: The act of relaying messages either verbal or non-verbal from one person or entity to another person or entity through signs, symbols and syntactics.

Communicative Media Transmission: Follows a many-to-many approach (i.e. YouTube Live Stream).

Competing Values Framework (CVF): An awareness check for an organization in regards to corporate culture.

Confirmation Bias: The idea that our initial beliefs are given more attention and pay less attention to beliefs outside of our world view.

Connectivism: The belief that knowledge is created beyond the level of individuals, and that knowledge through a network of connections is continuously changing.

Consensual Leaders: Encourage discussion, requires parties to make final decisions.

Constructive Feedback: Ensuring feedback is useful and following up on the feedback to ensure the learner is progressing.

Constructivism: The belief that all knowledge is subjective in nature, constructed from reality, and mutually agreed upon in a consensus.

Consultative Leaders: Encourage discussion, leader retains final authority over decision.

Contingent Reinforcement: Used when desired behaviour is exhibited, relating to a team reaching a quarterly goal, or daily working within the mission, vision and values of an organization.

Corporate Culture: focuses on the values of an organization, and relates to the socio-environmental characteristics of an organization

Corporate Governance: Different relationships a manager will have within an organization.

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): A form of self-regulation where firms take action and make initiatives to help people and the environment.

Cross-Functional Teams: Members within different groups who work together on a project

Cultural Iceberg Model: Developed by Edward T. Hall, follows our behavior, and external beliefs (the top of the iceberg, seen) are supported by values, thought patterns, and internal beliefs (below the surface, unseen).

Cultural Intelligence: A competency that allows individuals from cultures to function effectively in other cultural environments

Decision-Making: The action of thinking through a process and coming to a consensus either personal, or collaborative, and following through with that action

Decoding: During the communication process the receiver accepts the encoded message as an interpretation.

Delegating: The use of other individuals in a collaborative nature to handle tasks that have initially been brought to yourself

Democratic Leaders: A leadership style that embraces input from all members and puts decisions to a vote.

Deontology: An ethical concept that ethical individuals will meet their duties as it is obligated by society.

Departmentalization: Different structures within an organization maintaining control of their specific structure.

Devil’s Advocate: Provides an alternate view or a challenge to an individual’s logic on a decision.

Direct Communication: The use of communication tools through the direct words they use with literal interpretations

Direct Report: A member within an organization who is directly higher than a particular individual (i.e. the owner is the direct report of the CEO).

Discrimination: The unjust treatment of different categories of people or culture.

Diversity: The identity-based differences between people

Division of Labour: The breakdown of work into well-defined tasks made to be manageable.

Dynamic Forces: The different forces that can affect organizations in a global marketplace (economic, legal-political, technological, socio-cultural, and natural).

Economic Forces: forces that pertain to an organizations role within its national or global economy

Educational Policy: Creation, implementation, and revision of educational factors such as class size, teacher education, teaching methods, and curriculum.

Effective Communication: When a manager tells an employee something using jargon or colloquialisms, the employee understands completely and carries out a task.

Electronic Grapevine: the grouping of different electronic mediums connecting organizational members in many different ways.

Emotional Intelligence: Goleman’s definition is the ability to “manage ourselves and our relationships effectively”.

Entrepreneur: Classified as someone with vision, drive, creativity, and are committed to taking on risk to start a business for profit.

Entrepreneurial Culture: A mixture of personality and management identified by those who create not only businesses, but the culture that surrounds it.

Epistemology: Hofer and Pintrich say it is the philosophy on the justification or nature of knowledge.

Equity Theory: Organizational learning theory developed by J. Stacy Adams, based on the logic of social comparisons of the notion that perceived inequality is a motivating state, and people have different preferences to equity.

Escalation of Commitment: The idea that leaders and managers remain committed to a poor decision, or find it hard to remove ourselves from a poor decision rationally

Ethical Leadership: The enacting of ethical values central to organizational alignment.

Ethics Self-Governance: The performance standards requiring high ethical standards and social responsibility.

Ethics: A code of moral principles that set the standard of good and bad, right and wrong.

Expectancy Theory: Organizational learning theory developed by Victor Vroom, based that motivation comes from three separate factors: expectancy, instrumentality, valence.

Experiential Learning: Coined by John Dewey, and perfected by David Kolb eluding to empirical experience playing a role in the learning process.

Expert Power: A leader’s ability to have extensive knowledge in one or more areas within an organization.

Formal Organization: A set or relationships and responsibilities set from upper management to subordinates.

Formal Teams: Facilitate formal learning which the goal of personal development is the most important aspect.

Globalization: The phenomena that organizations move out of a local or national influence and expand to have a global influence.

Goals: An organizations general aims as expressed in public statements.

Goal-Setting Theory: Organizational learning theory developed by Edwin Locke, based on the idea of the theory is that goals can be motivating if they are properly set (planning) and well managed (execution) through four outlines: Direction, clarity of expectations, reference for feedback, and foundation for self-management.

Group-think: When one person uses their power in a group process and individuals will remain silent not to disturb the peace (i.e. going along with what the individual thinks as a group).

Hawthorne Effect: The organizational phenomena that employees in a workplace work better and are generally happier when management is concerned by their welfare.

Human Relations Theory: A theory developed by Mary Parker Follet relates to humans having a more satisfying life through work, and that humans solve conflict through a process of democracy and conversation.

Human Rights: An ethical concept that the human race has the right to live, have freedom, and pursue happiness.

Hybrid Classrooms: A transmission approach to delivering course content either separately or with connection face-face and online

Hygiene Factors: The nature of a job that is unsatisfying.

Immediate Reinforcement: Positive feedback right after the action.

Indirect Communication: The use of non-verbal behaviours and implications to convey meaning within the communication process

Individual Needs: The concept of deficient psychological or physiological needs in an individual.

Influence: The ability to have an effect on a person, ability, or situation within an organizational structure.

Informal Organization: Run as a network of different individuals with evolving relationships

Informal Teams: Facilitate informal learning, the organizational task is the most important and the learning outcome is secondary.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT): Goal is to develop a sense of deep learning with students and educators through the use of technology (i.e. computers and internet).

Innovation: The advancement or ‘newness’ in development of processes or products within an organization

Inquiry-Based Learning: Where a leader can provide help, but the learner explores their own themes, develops actions and comes to conclusions.

Interdisciplinary: The combining of two different specializations and augmenting them into a process.

Interpersonal Communication: individuals who share ideas about the company’s incentives and discuss their personal feelings to others within the organization.

Intrapreneur: Classified as someone who have freedom to develop new products and ideas under the guidance of their employer.

Job Design: Follows the fundamentals of scope, depth, and specialization of the job in relation to the job simplification, rotation, enlargement, and enrichment.

Job Enlargement: the increase of task variety by combining two or more tasks that were previously assigned to different workers

Job Enrichment: the practice of expanding job content through job depth to create more opportunities for satisfaction

Job Rotation: the increase in task variety by periodically shifting workers between jobs

Job Simplification: the standardizing of work procedures and employing people in well-defined and highly specialized tasks

Justice: An ethical concept of what is fair according to the prevailing standards of society.

Lassiez-Faire Leaders: A leadership style where leaders leave the control to their employees, so long as it confines within existing company ethics and standards.

Leadership Characteristics: Specific traits within one leadership style in which they plan projects and achieve goals.

Leadership: The social relationship between two or more persons who depend on each other to attain certain mutual goals in a group situation.

Learning Organization: An organization that fosters growth and learning, and continues growth into the future.

Legitimate Power: A leader who uses their heightened position within an organization as an influence.

Long-Term Memory: A passive approach through a series of data links retained in our minds.

Macropreneur: Business based off of an original idea, start small and grow to a major corporation, business is based on personal satisfaction and pursuing profit.

Management: The process of planning, organizing, directing, and controlling the activities of employees in combination with other resources to accomplish organizational objectives

Mechanistic Organization: Run as top-down hierarchies with formal rules and a narrow span of control.

Michigan Studies: Studies done at The University of Michigan which behavoiours are identified as job-centered behaviours and employee/member-centered behaviours.

Micropreneur: Business based off of an original idea, start small and stay small, business is based on personal satisfaction and lifestyle.

Motivation Needs: The ability to use action within an organization to account for the persistence to do work.

Multiculturalism: The process of ethnic pluralism within a state or society through legal, social, and economic factors.

Multipreneur: Classified as someone who starts a series of companies.

Nonverbal Communication: The transmission of communication without reading or writing

Normative Ethics: The field of ethics in relation to how one ought and should act.

Ohio State Studies: Studies done at The Ohio State University which developed the behavioural structures of consideration and initiating structure.

Online Collaborative Learning (OCL) : The model of learning in which learners are supported to work together, create knowledge, invent, innovate, and develop conceptual knowledge needed to solve problems, all while engaging in modern technology and developing through that technology collaboratively.

Oral Communication: The exchange of messages that are spoken and listened

Organic Organization: Run as a flat span of governance with flexible rules and participatory model of decision making.

Organization: A collection of people with a common purpose and aligned goals.

Participative Leaders: Shared leadership, allow input from individuals and brainstorm discussion about organizational issues.

Philanthropy: The helping or the donating of money to promote the welfare of the less-fortunate.

Planning: Creating an outline to guide operations in a direction of their mission, vision, and values.

Positive Reinforcement: The action taken upon by the leader to reward someone for doing good work.

Power: The ability to influence someone within an organization to get something you want done, completed.

Project-Based Learning: providing a student, in a classroom setting, a sense of responsibility and ownership in conducting projects with other students.

Reasonable Accommodation: In employment legislation, the employer must make a wholesome attempt to allow for differences amongst the workforce

Referent Power: A leader’s ability to use charisma to garner admiration from peers.

Reward Power: A leader who gains influence through the use of rewards with an organization.

Satisfier Factors: The nature of a job that is satisfying.

Scientific Management Theory: A theory developed by Frederick Taylor helps to improve organizational task completion through scientific engineering and mathematical analysis.

Self-Awareness: The inherent knowledge of one’s character, emotion, and motivations.

Self-Efficacy Theory: Organizational learning theory developed by Albert Bandura, based on the idea that an individual feels they are self-efficient or personally capable to performing a task.

Self-Managing Teams: Sets of teams with autonomy, and they are given authority as to how they go about their tasks.

Short-Term Memory: An active approach to learning in the moment

Small Businesses: Defined by certain characteristics such as: physical space, economic annual revenue, and social makeup(i.e. number of employees).

Social Entrepreneurship: Defined by J. Gregory Dees as adopting an organizational mission to create and sustain social value and pursuing new opportunities to serve that mission.

Socio-Cultural Forces: Forces pertaining to the values, beliefs, customs and traditions of different people in regards to race, religion, gender and other socio-cultural backgrounds

Stakeholders: The individuals or groups that are affected by the organization (i.e. employees, vendors, customers, and shareholders).

Strategic Giving: Ties philanthropy to the organizations corporate social responsibility (csr) of mission, vision, and values.

Subordinate: A member within an organization who is a lower rank than a particular individual (i.e. the CEO is a subordinate to the founder/owner).

Sustainability: Follows organizational practice of: Hiring local labour, creating new jobs, developing industry sectors, provide business and learning skills, help decrease the countries debt and improve standard of living.

Theory X: A theory developed by Douglas McGregor that managers believe subordinates dislike work, lack ambition, responsibility, and prefer to be led rather than lead.

Theory Y: A theory developed by Douglas McGregor that managers believe subordinates are willing to work, accept responsibility, and capable of self-control and self-direction.

Time Constraints: When there is little time available to collect information with rationality and make an effective decision.

Timeline: A given, set time to complete a task in order to be successful.

Transactional Leadership: A leadership style that changes styles, adjusts tasks, and allocates rewards to achieve a positive influence.

Transformational Leadership: A leadership style that heightens aspirations and shifts people and organizations to new levels.

Treaty of Amsterdam: European Union’s basis for anti-discrimination law presented in 1997.

Triple-Bottom-Line: Three p’s: profit, people and planet. Used to measure a level of organizational accountability towards ethical, social, and environmental causes.

Tuckman Stages of Group Development: Developed by Bruce Tuckman; describes the stages of forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning within organizational groups.

Utilitarianism: An ethical concept that people should act, and decisions should be made to reflect the greater good for the greatest number of people.

Virtual Teams: Described as cross-functional but are computer-orientated, rather than face-to-face interactions.

Visionary Leaders: A leader who heightens aspirations through emotional and intellectual attractions.

Whistle-Blower: An individual who exposes the unethical deeds of others in an organization, to preserve ethical standards and prevent against future unethical treatment.

Workplace Diversity: The identity-based differences of processes or outcomes within a work environment.

Written Communication: The use of emails, texts, reports and other annotations relayed from messenger to receiver for precise information.